sticsEva Nur Mazidah
120710209
Sociolinguistics
Final Examination
English and Internet in the Eyes of Global Society
In the globalization era, it seems like technology has becomes part of life and one of its kind is internet. Many people use internet from children to adults. Internet indeed gives many impacts to our life. Not only access of information, but also power, ideology, capitalism, and cultures are spread through internet. It becomes a new sort of world for humans in which virtual space has to be seen as an expression of the real, not only its interests (Silverstone, 1999).
This paper would give a description how language is used in the internet, how universal this Global English is how English in internet gives impacts to indigenous communication language, what Global English communication is, what English convention is used in internet, how English broadcasts dominant cultures, and how language diversity means.
Talking about internet, we need to know how it becomes so popular. It is now internet found everywhere. Let’s say internet is like a mushroom in a wet season, as time goes on, as technology grows more sophisticated time after time. All countries in this world have already got the access of internet network.
Internet, of course, is a like two sides of a coin. It brings good and harm at the same times. It gives very good millions access of information; it eases short-long communication, etc. in another side, it also brings caveats. It potentially creates loss e.g. cyber-crime, cyber-war, etc. After all, sometimes we see that the appearance of internet cause problematic issues.
One of problems caused by internet is the language use. We see that language functions as a mean to communicate each other. We also realize that this world becomes closer in term of a fact that we need other people, even from other countries. Therefore, we need a media, not only physical one, but also non-physical one. Internet as physical mean functions to medium and language is the soul of the medium which connects and communicates our aims. The problem is that language itself is not that innocent.
There is a hidden agenda within media and language (Silverstone 1999). It is actually simple but it still does not meet our satisfaction. Let’s say press media, TV, and internet well as, basically move under certain agenda. They try to intervene people’s life. Internet is not that innocent at this prejudice. It gives potentially influences socially, politically, economically, and culturally. Media has a power to run this agenda by using a slithering tool so-called language and the language is English.
An article ‘Why a Global Language? English is a Global Language’ opens up our eyes that in fact “English rules” this world. It has become a lingua franca for people on earth. Therefore its universality is always spread time after time. As a consequence, English is admitted to be the symbol of a globalization, diversification, progress, identity and power. Everywhere we go to countries, we can find English whether it becomes the first, second or foreign language. It implicitly shows its huge “power” over the countries physically and mentally.
As I noticed, many sites use English as language and some combine English and national language (bilingual texts). It happens because they believe that English is needed as a bridge communicating people around the world. Almost 85% of websites in internet are served in English (Kramarae, n.d.). People realize that English is an international language therefore it is hoped that people from other parts of world can exchange information from other sources. As an example, we can see website of universities in Indonesia. Many of them provide bilingual texts so that people from other countries can access the information.
Millions sources use English, indeed. If the question asks whether English can serve adequately as the basic language of internet, the answer is approximately 97% ‘Yes’ it can. I find a bit doubt because though English is a lingua franca, it does not mean that all people use English. We may still find everywhere people who know not about English. They in fact use their national language when they open web-pages. Internet has been provided with national language in their version. But if they want to get more global access, they do need English. When you enter such keywords in English, you will find such different result comparing when you enter the keywords in Indonesia, for instance. Indonesian information is not as abundant as English version. There is unfortunately a potential different and it shows that since the first origin of internet is in English form, the basic language of internet is actually English.
Why websites mostly use English is because they would like to serve majority of people and virtual space has to be seen as an expression of the real world (Silverstone, 1999). In the real world we can find about around 495.8 millions people speaking English (Internet World Stats, 2009). It is evidence that a lot of people use English as their communication language either as L1, L2, foreign language, or favored language. There is an old poet saying that “Japanese lives in Japan; German lives in Germany; Turkish lives in Turkey…. English lives at home.” It indicates that English is recognized by many people in many countries all over the world. We do not need to worry not being able to communicate with people in foreign countries. If you can speak English, you survive. English becomes a bridge to global communication. In virtual world, the same notion happens. Web pages are commonly written in English. It is to ease other people see other parts of the world view. The undercover agenda is that you are part of global community if you can master the global community language—English.
People may wonder when English is used globally, people, whose countries are not English speaking country, are stimulated to study English for example Indonesia. English here is as a foreign language. Nowadays, we find English courses from formal ones to private ones. People are willing to study English. They need that for education, job, etc. while Indonesian is a bit left. There is a language competition here. When it happens, the worst is language extinction. Actually it will not happen if there are number of people speaking the certain language they use (especially local language). It is all in people’s hands whether they still use their local language or not. Therefore some people believe that English jeopardizes indigenous language communication.
Now, let see the context how English can jeopardize indigenous language. Based on the setting, which is in internet, the question is whether or not the development of English on the internet destructively can replace indigenous communication. To my opinion, it will not destructively replace indigenous communication. I can not say certain because internet is not a real world. We have to see also the intensity of people using internet. It is not going to be as harmful as when English is obliged to be L2 or foreign language. Either as L2 or foreign language, English is not going to be success to destroy the indigenous language if people still use their own language. Furthermore, language use in internet is mostly in written. We have to see the potential different between reading comprehension in reading and speaking ability of people who are not from English-speaking countries. They may understand the text but can not speak fluently. Therefore there is no guarantee that it will destructively replace indigenous communication language. A preventing action for it is by still using the indigenous language.
Language is actually the identity of the speaker, for instance Javanese belongs to Javanese, etc. That is still the standard but not as strong as it used to be. In some stances, one person can speak several distinct languages and it is possible to imitate accent. So, it is not going to be the only standard.
In answering the question ‘what is the community of the Global English?’, the answer is the Global English community with various varieties. We can not deny that English does not belong to only United Kingdom, United States, Australia, etc. Further e.g. Singapore, India, Malaysia, etc. also become the member of vast varieties of English. They all speak English but the influences of their own language also exist. It is impossible that they will all follow British English or American English, etc. They will somehow still use their uniqueness in their language as a sign that they also part of other cultures for instance Singapore, we know term ‘Singaporean English’ that has some influence from Chinese.
The phenomenon is similar to Javanese language. People speak Javanese, but they use various varieties in Java. People from certain region potentially use different varieties from others. The influences may come from different local habit, accent, vocabularies, pronunciation, cultures, etc. Still, they still can understand each other language because they stand on the same language. That is why Malang people, Sidoarjo people, Salatiga people, Tulungagung people, Surabaya people, and so on are still called Javanese.
So, English here functions as a system of signs that bind all people in the world together. They all stand under the universal language, English. Therefore they are called as the community of Global English because they communicate with English whatever their varieties are.
Since there are various varieties in English, we can still find some pattern in convention they make. As I notice my self, most of English convention used is American English. We do not need to question it because United States has a huge power in governing media. It is also supported by a fact that in a real world, United Influences also dominates our world for instance lifestyle, movie, state policies, foreign policies, economics, cultures, and so on. United States become the ruler of this world implicitly. Everything in media talks about United States. New invention blows up because of United States. They can govern media and advertise everything. The power over countries that finally make United States become the role model of everything. Since naturally they are dominating, of course their language becomes one of their parts. Language can be politically functioned as Habermas said.
The review above does not mean that American English really dominating so that we could not find the British one, for instance. We still can find whatever the style we want. But after all, American English is dominating. If we talk about article, many of them are in American English. They still follow the academic rules. If you see advertisement in internet, many of them use American style too. It is because United States also dominate global market.
United States, in this case, seems to have splashed their fragrance to all aspects in this world. It is all because of media, as I stated before. It becomes tool to co-orchestrate what happens in this world. They give information like CNN, interpretation, education, entertainment via Hollywood movies, etc. Media, in this case, become a bridge and mirror for us to see the reality out there. If certain party can govern the media, they are the god of this world in hegemonizing people to be in their side. Who is that? United States is in the first rank.
Now let me show you how the media, including internet, can shape the social mindset. Media are now seen as social institution or domains. They deal with content, recipient (process of communications) and how they are communicated each other. We will see that there is media discourse working in that process. It is believed that media are anyway controversial in term of reflecting ‘reality’ or just ‘co-orchestrate’ the reality. To this fact, some argues that somehow media discourse still give a degree of mediation in providing content. Towards the production of messages, they are also controlled by factors through a hierarchy of levels and responsibilities. In the other hand, recipients are dilemmatic with media restriction in access and participation has created much controversy whereas media has designed messages for audience. In conclusion, media can be regarded as a specific communicative structure providing content (public idiom) and media discourse proceeds content into media messages to whom the message is addressed.
The details of media discourse refer to forms, structures, language use and semiotic codes in media, and so on. Media discourse in certain ways needs differentiating from the messages they transfer e.g. programs. Therefore, there are three dimensions of messages and media discourse. First dimension is the production point of view, low level out-put to which recipients are exposed their reaction, for instance an interview with President Nelson Mandela (the interface of two dimensions). Secondly, processing of content occurs at several layers of an institutional hierarchy. Low-level output is the form of the program format e.g. news, spots reports, etc. which can be grouped into categories in terms of orientation. The low-level of messages are shaped in spatiotemporal sequences. Third dimension shows how it is transmitted as media messages. At the end of the day, language which is the central carrier of low-level messages and of messages sequences plays an important role in shaping belief system to come to dominate. The explanation above gives a sight that media are physically informative and mentally affective.
Basically within the language itself, we have already spread so-called culture, a pack of culture. Another view again shows how combination of media and language broadcast cultures. I mentioned about Hollywood movie industries. Almost good films are from there. If we think critically, many values are given and they succeed to make us believe that they are the real example of this world. All movies have a tendency to show that United States is a superpower, a wise state, a winner of everything. They try to influence us and captivate us through their movies. We may not realize that this is the way they echo their agenda. They would like to use English and media to Americanize this world and invite us to their way of life.
We need to make prejudice that it actually threatens other cultures. If previously I said that it is not going to jeopardize the language, it is still justifiable. But in the name of culture that is not in the form of language, I say that it really threatens.
There are several reasons why it is so threatening. Let’s take a look at Indonesian culture. We have high values in family matters, friendship, togetherness, respect, etc, ; we are told to have politeness in clothing, behaving, etc. Now, movies, free access of internet to browse whatever you like, has told us new culture so-called permissive. Media e.g. social networking sites tell you how to be individualist. Freedom of expression becomes a new ideology and faith for other as Americans believe. Clothing, you can wear whatever you like and whatsoever with other people think about you. They would like to close our eyes by making our self busy with our individual matters. These values unfortunately tell us what we should be. We still can prevent endangered indigenous language, but we are highly difficult to remind and prevent others when these values become ideology of people in majority. The way it spreads is easy by inserting values in language in movies broadcasted by media. It is then believed as a dominant culture values.
To the last question whether or not language diversity a communication or a source of enrichment, I will say that language diversity bears both a communication and a source of enrichment. Language diversity emerges because there is different in vocabularies, naming, etc. To refer a thing, sometimes people from different region mention different names. Here is the example of varieties. Still they are different; they become a bridge of communication. They function as a mean to communicate between people. That is also the nature of language as a tool of communication.
Language also becomes a source of enrichment. Here, as I said, vocabularies become the source of enrichment. We can expand our vocabularies building. A simple example is English. English used to have small numbers of vocabularies. It expands because it borrows, lends, combines other language. Many languages in this world have been used by English as vocabularies building. Words like lava (Indonesian), jilbab, pachyderm, etc. English uses for instance, Javanese, Malay, Latin, Arabic, Japanese, etc. English is quit adaptive to changes and therefore Englsih is acceptable to other countries in this world.
In conclusion, towards the resistance and prejudice to English, at least we can still get benefits of this language and this media. To preserve the language, what is needed is the awareness of society. Toward cultural and behavioral changing, we should be able to differentiate what is good and bad by seeing our cultures. After all, we can not ignore the position of English in the globalization. It is the spirit of the new changing. Internet as other media must have benefits and caveats. It is all coming back to us which way we choose. May the indigenous languages become a new inspiration to develop new technologies for the better condition of this world cultures especially in languages.
REFERENCE
Internet Worlds Stats. (2009). Top Ten Language Used in Internet. Retrieved on July 9, 2010 from www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm
Kramarae, Cherish. (n.d.). The Language and the Nature of the Internet: the Meaning of Global. London: SAGE Publications.
Silverstone, Roger. (1999). What’s New about Media?. London: SAGE Publications.
Anonym. (n.d.). Why a Global Language? Englsih is a the Global Language.
Kamis, 08 Juli 2010
Minggu, 13 Juni 2010
Discourse Anal.
Hendra Bangkit Sacipta 120710011
Anita 120710208
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Apriana Bunga S. 120710210
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION:
An Observation on Infotainment
Genre : Infotainment
Topic : Gossip of a government figure
Purpose : To provide information about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife, Ainun Besari.
Setting : In a TV studio
Participants : An Indonesian male presenter about 25 years old
An Indonesian female presenter about 30 years old
The general public
Message form : Spoken Indonesian, video, recorded poem, song as back-sound
Act sequence : 1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife
2. Voice over of a poem written by B.J. Habibie
3. Narration about the poem plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
4. Flashback to the funeral day plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
5. Narration about Habibie praying on his wife’s cemetery plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
6. Habibie’s pray for his wife
7. Narration about the chronology of the death of Ainun Besari
8. An interview with Adrie Subono (a celebrity which is also Ainun Besari’s nephew)
9. Narration about a little biography of Ainun Besari plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
10. Farewell and prayer from Dina Mariana (a celebrity)
11. Farewell and prayer from Donita (a celebrity)
12. Farewell and prayer from the casts of Fitri serials
13. Comment from the two presenters
14. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Rules for interaction : There is no interaction between the presenters and the general public, so there are not any properties used. The interaction only occurs between the presenters, but without using any properties, too.
Norms of interpretation : The presenters are assumed authority in the area.
The shared information is that B.J. Habibie is Indonesia’s 4th president and Ainun Habibie was his wife.
The culture of Indonesia influences the delivering of information. The joke and the comment are delivered politely since the object of information is the 3rd president of Indonesia.
Another shared condition is the sadness which influences the choice of song. The song is slow and melancholic as the convention of the culture says so.
Communicative Event:
1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife
2. Voice over of a poem written by B.J. Habibie
3. Narration about the poem plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
4. Flashback to the funeral day plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
5. Narration about Habibie praying on his wife’s cemetery plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
6. Habibie’s pray for his wife
7. Narration about the chronology of the death of Ainun Besari
8. An interview with Adrie Subono (a celebrity which is also Ainun Besari’s nephew)
9. Narration about a little biography of Ainun Besari plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
10. Farewell and prayer from Dina Mariana (a celebrity)
11. Farewell and prayer from Donita (a celebrity)
12. Farewell and prayer from the casts of Fitri serials
13. Comment from the two presenters
14. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Problems appearing from the Communicative Event presented:
People will get touched and involved to the story presented. With the chosen back-sound, flashback to the funeral day, and a little biography about the deceased Ainun Besari, people will empathize more.
Genre : infotainment
Topic : gossip of Arumi Bachsin in Insert Pagi 31/5/2010
Function : to inform viewers about Arumi Bachsin’s problem
to see her problem from other point of view
Setting : in a TV studio
Key : semi formal, a bit crowded, chill
Participants : presenters of Insert, Alif Ali (Miler’s brother/Arumi’s boyfriend) and Miler’s manager
Message form : formal and informal Indonesian, spoken, video
Message contact : the responses of Alif and Miler manager toward Arumi’s case. They say, “It was all Arumi’s decision to leave her mom.”
Act sequence : 1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about Arumi who went to Singapore to avoid her mother
2. Video showing Arumi before she went to Singapore and her relationship with Miler
3. Narration about Arumi’s leaving
4. an interview with Alif Ali (Miler’s brother) and Miler’s manager
5. the narrator gives comments towards Alif and the manager’s statement
6. Alif and the manager respond to some of Arumi’s news
7. the narrator gives comment back about Arumi’s family point of view
8. Alif and the manager respond to the statements
9. Comments from the two presenters
10. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Rules for interaction : There is no interaction between the presenters and the general public, so there are not any properties used. The interaction only occurs between the presenters, but without using any properties, too.
Norms of interpretation : The presenters are assumed authority in the area.
The shared information is Arumi went to Singapore without acknowledgement of her parents and she was assumed to be influenced by Miler (her boyfriend).
The culture of Indonesia influences the delivering of information. The joke and the comment are delivered in a bit impolite way as other society may think so. They make it a bit funny.
Communicative Event:
1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about Arumi who went to Singapore to avoid her mother
2. Video showing Arumi before she went to Singapore and her relationship with Miler
3. Narration about Arumi’s leaving
4. an interview with Alif Ali (Miler’s brother) and Miler’s manager
5. the narrator gives comments towards Alif and the manager’s statement
6. Alif and the manager respond to some of Arumi’s news
7. the narrator gives comment back about Arumi’s family point of view
8. Alif and the manager respond to the statements
9. Comments from the two presenters
10. A Polite Joke from the male and female presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Problems appearing from the Communicative Event presented:
People will get touched and involved to the story presented. The way they present the events evoke society to believe in Miler side, Arumi side, or even Arumi’s mother side. The presenters give opinion from those three point of views.
Comparison of the two gossips:
The first gossip is sad so it uses slow and melancholic back-sound, and the second uses standard back-sound. The first is about a government figure (the 3rd president of Indonesia) so the delivering of information and comment is more polite than the second one. The second one is about Arumi Bachsin, a teenage artist who went to Singapore to avoid her mother. However, since both of the gossips are taken form the same program (on different day), the structure of the message-delivering is almost the same. The difference is merely on the content, context, and duration.
Anita 120710208
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Apriana Bunga S. 120710210
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION:
An Observation on Infotainment
Genre : Infotainment
Topic : Gossip of a government figure
Purpose : To provide information about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife, Ainun Besari.
Setting : In a TV studio
Participants : An Indonesian male presenter about 25 years old
An Indonesian female presenter about 30 years old
The general public
Message form : Spoken Indonesian, video, recorded poem, song as back-sound
Act sequence : 1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife
2. Voice over of a poem written by B.J. Habibie
3. Narration about the poem plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
4. Flashback to the funeral day plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
5. Narration about Habibie praying on his wife’s cemetery plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
6. Habibie’s pray for his wife
7. Narration about the chronology of the death of Ainun Besari
8. An interview with Adrie Subono (a celebrity which is also Ainun Besari’s nephew)
9. Narration about a little biography of Ainun Besari plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
10. Farewell and prayer from Dina Mariana (a celebrity)
11. Farewell and prayer from Donita (a celebrity)
12. Farewell and prayer from the casts of Fitri serials
13. Comment from the two presenters
14. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Rules for interaction : There is no interaction between the presenters and the general public, so there are not any properties used. The interaction only occurs between the presenters, but without using any properties, too.
Norms of interpretation : The presenters are assumed authority in the area.
The shared information is that B.J. Habibie is Indonesia’s 4th president and Ainun Habibie was his wife.
The culture of Indonesia influences the delivering of information. The joke and the comment are delivered politely since the object of information is the 3rd president of Indonesia.
Another shared condition is the sadness which influences the choice of song. The song is slow and melancholic as the convention of the culture says so.
Communicative Event:
1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about B.J. Habibie making a poem for his deceased wife
2. Voice over of a poem written by B.J. Habibie
3. Narration about the poem plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
4. Flashback to the funeral day plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
5. Narration about Habibie praying on his wife’s cemetery plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
6. Habibie’s pray for his wife
7. Narration about the chronology of the death of Ainun Besari
8. An interview with Adrie Subono (a celebrity which is also Ainun Besari’s nephew)
9. Narration about a little biography of Ainun Besari plus back-sound “Opick’s song”
10. Farewell and prayer from Dina Mariana (a celebrity)
11. Farewell and prayer from Donita (a celebrity)
12. Farewell and prayer from the casts of Fitri serials
13. Comment from the two presenters
14. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Problems appearing from the Communicative Event presented:
People will get touched and involved to the story presented. With the chosen back-sound, flashback to the funeral day, and a little biography about the deceased Ainun Besari, people will empathize more.
Genre : infotainment
Topic : gossip of Arumi Bachsin in Insert Pagi 31/5/2010
Function : to inform viewers about Arumi Bachsin’s problem
to see her problem from other point of view
Setting : in a TV studio
Key : semi formal, a bit crowded, chill
Participants : presenters of Insert, Alif Ali (Miler’s brother/Arumi’s boyfriend) and Miler’s manager
Message form : formal and informal Indonesian, spoken, video
Message contact : the responses of Alif and Miler manager toward Arumi’s case. They say, “It was all Arumi’s decision to leave her mom.”
Act sequence : 1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about Arumi who went to Singapore to avoid her mother
2. Video showing Arumi before she went to Singapore and her relationship with Miler
3. Narration about Arumi’s leaving
4. an interview with Alif Ali (Miler’s brother) and Miler’s manager
5. the narrator gives comments towards Alif and the manager’s statement
6. Alif and the manager respond to some of Arumi’s news
7. the narrator gives comment back about Arumi’s family point of view
8. Alif and the manager respond to the statements
9. Comments from the two presenters
10. A Polite Joke from the male presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Rules for interaction : There is no interaction between the presenters and the general public, so there are not any properties used. The interaction only occurs between the presenters, but without using any properties, too.
Norms of interpretation : The presenters are assumed authority in the area.
The shared information is Arumi went to Singapore without acknowledgement of her parents and she was assumed to be influenced by Miler (her boyfriend).
The culture of Indonesia influences the delivering of information. The joke and the comment are delivered in a bit impolite way as other society may think so. They make it a bit funny.
Communicative Event:
1. Opening of gossip by the presenters about Arumi who went to Singapore to avoid her mother
2. Video showing Arumi before she went to Singapore and her relationship with Miler
3. Narration about Arumi’s leaving
4. an interview with Alif Ali (Miler’s brother) and Miler’s manager
5. the narrator gives comments towards Alif and the manager’s statement
6. Alif and the manager respond to some of Arumi’s news
7. the narrator gives comment back about Arumi’s family point of view
8. Alif and the manager respond to the statements
9. Comments from the two presenters
10. A Polite Joke from the male and female presenter
15. Closing for the following ads
Problems appearing from the Communicative Event presented:
People will get touched and involved to the story presented. The way they present the events evoke society to believe in Miler side, Arumi side, or even Arumi’s mother side. The presenters give opinion from those three point of views.
Comparison of the two gossips:
The first gossip is sad so it uses slow and melancholic back-sound, and the second uses standard back-sound. The first is about a government figure (the 3rd president of Indonesia) so the delivering of information and comment is more polite than the second one. The second one is about Arumi Bachsin, a teenage artist who went to Singapore to avoid her mother. However, since both of the gossips are taken form the same program (on different day), the structure of the message-delivering is almost the same. The difference is merely on the content, context, and duration.
socLing observation
Eva Nur Mazidah
120710209
English Department
Sociolinguistics
Observation Report
Language Use in Text Messages
Cell phone used to be a luxurious stuff but it is now not anymore. To my opinion, almost 70% of people in my surrounding have cell phone; at least each house owns it. Talking about the function, major functions of cell phone are to call and to text (SMS—send message service-- feature). Many young people prefer to text their friends rather than to call. One of reasons is because it is cheaper than to call or they just want to spend their free SMS, especially nowadays there are many phone providers giving promotions of their products—free SMS. To linguistics study, this phenomenon can be observed in term of written text used in media via text message or SMS feature.
Basically, the nature of speaking is different from writing whereas I often notice that text messages function as another form of chatting. The implication of this communication is that trigger them to make writing as simple as speaking. Thus they sometimes make abbreviations, code-switching and code-mixing.
In this report, I would like to describe this phenomenon I have found for years, that is language use in text messages (msgs) via cell phone. The focuses are in language style, grammar, and vocabularies. The objects are text msgs from different people e.g. my university friends, my village or school friends, my families, and my lecturers.
Communication can be done in various ways, direct and indirect. Text msgs cann be regarded as indirect communication because there is a delay process from communicators to communicants. We find that communication can be form of exchanging information, chatting, and so on. I personally use my text msgs as a bridge to communicate with people in distance as if it helps me to make them right by my side. I find no distance with them because we can still talk with written texts via cell phone. It is also cheaper and fun. Therefore, this type of communication, in term of language, has created new styles of language use in our surroundings.
1. Language Style
Text msgs attempt to decode speaking into writing. The problem is when we type in cellphone it is like transcribing our speaking and indeed it takes time, energy, number of text pages in cell phone, and surely pulsa. To make it efficient, people shorten or abbreviate words. See examples below.
+ : tambah Almt : alamat W3 : wa’alaykum salam war. Wab. r : are
- : kurang Anw/ aw : anyway 4 : for Lum : belum
bs : bisa Btw : by the way 2 : to Pyn : sampean
Luv/loph: cinta/love Dah : sudah d@ : that Bro : brother
Ad/da : ada Otw :on the way @ : at K2k : kakak
n ; and/ dan U/Qm/km/qmuw : kamu Diz : this CBB/SBB : sorry/ coyi baru balas
Thx/tq : thanks Ak/aq/q/quw : aku y : ya u/ : untuk
Lt. : lantai Sy/ sya : saya t : ta Klo/lo : kalau
Krn : karena Gag/ gak/ g’/g : gak /tidak Jdwl : jadwal 7an : tujuan
Sbg : sebagai Askum/asslm: assalamu’alaykum Cz : because BG : background
Trz/truz :terus Wiv : with Dunno : don’t know Bt : buat/ but
Kn : kan Hafta : have to Pplz : people Bwt :membuat
Spt : seperti G2G :gotta go Tax : tanya X : kali, nya
Lum/lon/blum : belum Gud, g’ : Good Happy : Hppy C’mtee : committee
I find pattern in the abbreviations made by me and people in writing text msgs. In some words, they change with characters that sound alike e.g. for with 4, don’t know with dunno. They usually delete vowels or consonant if they are unnecessary to write. For instances:
Klmpk : kelompok Bgt : banget Cpek : capek Dtg : datang
Tgs :tugas Disini :dsn Dah : sudah Pulng/plang/plg : pulang
Everyone may have their own way of abbreviating words. Let’s say that this media emphasize on individual usage so that it is all on the owners’ authority. Some omit vowels in the first syllable or last syllable. Some omit all vowels and leave consonants, etc. To some words e.g. SELAMAT becomes met and BELUM becomes lum, users only take the last syllable. I used to feel difficult to erad a text msgs from my friend at the first time I owned my cell phone. As time goes on, I have been accustomed of reading such texts easily but still I have to think twice if I find new abbreviations. The way ones abbreviating can be copied and used in other texts, that is the way I develop my knowledge. Their conventions can make the style of language use developed and heterogeneous. But somehow it still depends to whom we send our text msgs. We still keep positive and negative face in sending texts like we do conversation.
One of language style is the use of code switching (CS) and code mixing (CM). The use of CS and CM happen in the plurality of language variations. I, my self, use three languages in my daily life communication and so do people around me. They at least master two languages. It gives impacts to the way we write text msgs. In real conversation, people use CS and CM because of motivations. It also happens to text msgs. The motivations are mostly to make efficient characters in text msgs or probably to ease their communication. Usually we code-switch common terms e.g THANK YOU with thx or tq or thanks.
Ema: “Coyi…Q g bs dtg k humz u cz q mw prgi ma k2kq. Ne q otw k Grsk. Thx.”
(aku gak bisa datang k house u [rumah kamu] because [karena] pergi sama kakakku. Ini aku on the way ke Gresik. Thanks.)
There are five English words used in indonesian text msgs. I call it as SM because basically I substitute several words: Coyi (sorry/maaf), humz (home/rumah), u (you/kamu), cz (‘cause/karena), otw (on the way/ di jalan) and thx (thanks/terima kasih).
See another example below.
Rita : “I dunno wht 2 do wiv d assgmnt. Can u help me pliz? Kmrn aq g msuk lho..thx”
Ema: “CBB,duh muuph,q lg gag d kos.mudik iki nang deso.ono mantenan.u mending tax yg laen ja yakz.mang gag ad lg yg bntu u nich?ojok mbolos t wingi…hahai..=)”
Rita: “yupz.gp2 kuk. Met lburan yakz.. dont 4get oleh2x..gud nite!”
Tree texts above shows mixed styles. First text uses CS English to Indonesia with abbreviations in the language use. See the translated text below.
Rita : “I don’t know what to do with the assignment. Can you help me please? Kemarin aku gak masuk lho.. thanks”
Ema : “Coyi baru bales,aduh maaf,aku lagi gak di kos.mudik iki nang deso (mudik ke desa).ono mantenan (ada pernikahan). You (kamu) mending tanya yang lain saja ya. Emang gak ada lagi yang bantu you (kamu) ini? Ojok mbolos ta wingi (jangan mboloslah kemarin)…haha..=)”
Rita: “ya, gak apa-apa kok. Selamat liburan ya. Don’t forget oleh-olehnya. Good night!”
It is a fact that abbreviation and some CS and CM save characters in text msgs. Second text also uses CS and CM. Several partial broken words used are gag (gak), nich (ini), hahai (haha), coyi (sorry), yuyui (ya). Second text is also quit various in language style. It shifts from Indonesian to English and Javanese to Indonesia.
Such texts above become the style of youngsters. They like to change words exist with changing consonants or even add with new syllable. This kind of style may be difficult to find in old people text messages. In short, the style of old and youngsters are possibly different.
In my introduction, I mentioned several objects e.g. my university friends, my village or school friends, my families, and my lecturers. Now, I want to explain them one by one.
• University friends
Some of my university friends are from Surabaya and others are from outside of Surabaya. We usually communicate with Indonesian and indeed our text msgs are also in the form of Indonesian or English CM or CS since we are also students of English department. See one of my senior text below.
Hardy Kembar: “Aq blm cgratulate kalian ya. Bttr late thn never. Slmat ya dah dpt 3rd place UMM =) u guys xceded evrybody’s xpectation gud job
(Aku belum congratulate kalian ya. Batter late than necver. Selamat ya sudah dapat third place di UMM =) you guys exceeded everybody’s expectation good job )
He sent me this text last year and I did not understand a word of them xcded (exceeded). I had to think several times that I had to open my dictionary. He used abbreviated word in English and he code-mixed Indonesian to English in the first sentence and code-switch to English. This type of text is often sent to me. If I am not lazy, I reply with English or code-switch Indonesian to English. But if I am lazy to type, I reply it in Indonesia. Sometimes I use abbreviation in English and some do not understand e.g. d@, diz, pplz, g2g, c’mtee, BG, LB, THBT, THW. THS, etc. only several people understand these terms.
• High school friends
I am from Gresik, exactly from a village named Bungah. Most of my friends are around the village. So, our tendency to speak in Javanese is high enough. To communicate with my friends, I usually use Javanese rather than Indonesian. To my text msgs, 80% uses Indonesian and 2.0% uses Javanese or I code-switch or code-mix them. Some of my friends prefer use Javanese and I meanly reply them with Indonesian or code-switch with Javanese. If they are not university students, they usually use many Javanese words and if they are students of university or working in cities, they use Indonesian as the dominant language. For me, I seldom use Javanese because Javanese is difficult to abbreviate and spend many characters. The next example is a text from my friend. He stays in Bungah and works there.
Hadi: “He, kabarmu ke’epo? Gak ono reuni ta arek2?
(He, kabarmu bagaimana? Teman-teman gak ada reoni?)
Ema: “Waduh, q gak ngerti. Dah lama q g smsn ma ank2..hehe..mending pyn tax Menick ja..”
(Waduh, aku gak tau. Sudah lama aku gak SMSan sama anak-anak..hehe)
Hadi: “Oke..suwon2..”
(Oke..terima kasih..)
Below is the text from my friend in Veterinary Faculty.
Kamal: “Wa’alykmslm.. hehew msh zman y da pnja2h.. skg dah merdeka bro.. btw knp u g’ ktmu dy pe’ hr raya..? Q ge liat bola.. u?
(Wa’alaykumsalam.. hehe masih zaman ya ada penjajah.. sekarang sudah merdeka brother.. by the way kenapa you gak katemu dia sampai hari raya..? aku lagi lihat bola.. you?
He code-mixed from Indonesia to English and Javanese. He also uses many abbreviations. Again, it does not guarantee that my village friends uses Javanese all the times. Sometimes people are influenced by their environment.
• My families
If I talk about old people or elder people, they tend to use Javanese and least abbreviations especially those who seldom send text msgs for instance my mother and my uncles. They tend to use Javanese and I dislike it anyway. I can not abbreviate words so I am busy in typing words. So, when I dela with them, I usually use Javanese rather than Indonesian because at home I use Javanese. If I talk about my cousins or my sister, they are not different from me. We often use abbreviations, CM and CS in our text msgs either Indonesian, Javanese, or English.
See these two text messages from my uncle and my sister below.
Cak Thofa : “Ema. Nek sampean jalan2 nang gramedia, sampean golekno buku jdl Membongkar Gerakan Wahabi kry Nur Kholik pnbt Tana Air. Sama Tanya Jawab Akida Aswaja kry Al Habib Zainal Abidn pnbt KALISTA”
My uncle mainly used Javanese and fewer abbreviations. He mostly typed all words. See my Kakak’s text below.
Kakak “Tny hti kcil pyn ja. Tu jwbn yg lbih baik”
She used many abbreviation and a CM in reference (pyn= pean).
If I have to reply a text from my uncle, it will be my respond, “Nggeh, cak. Insyaallah nek ema jalan2 ke gramed.”. To my Kakak, I will say, “Thx kak bt saranx.. lg dilema nich.. tp kykx c q ykin ma yg ne.. doain ja yakz..” I still see whom I communicate with.
• My Lecturers and my boss
Lecturers mostly use formal language in writing text msgs. They also seldom use abbreviation like teenagers or students in popular. It also influences how we, students, write or reply texts for them.
Ema: “Pak Juri, dimana sya bsa mengambil proposal sya? Terima kasih.”
I have to use formal language when I send text. I have to respect them even in my text msgs. Sometimes I have to think the language I use for thousand times before I type whereas I actually want to ask “Pak, prososal sy dmn?thx.”
This situation happens because I perceive text msgs as a real conversation. I have to keep my negative face to respected people like lecturers. This problem in fact happens to most of my friends when they have to deal with elder lecturers. If I have to send to Pak Endhie a text, I may use informal language, abbreviations, CM or SC but I still put reference “Pak” in my sentences.
2. Grammar
People or my friends sometimes really ignore the grammar use in writing text (but for lecturers they may still keep their grammar even when they do CM or CS. We indeed use informal language when we send texts with our peers. We sometimes exaggerate the function of punctuations like “gag tau nich…...” But personally, I will keep my question mark use. Sometimes I am confused by my friend use of question mark e.g. “ne lh ujan deres bgt,,, q malez kluar,,,,jd, hr ne qt gag jd ja yaks kluarx?.” The problem comes to me as the replier. The last sentence there means a question or a sentence. He used a question mark and full stop at the same time. I hate this situation especially when I have limited pulsa. Users really ignore it sometimes.
Besides punctuations, when they make CS or CM, there are patterns how they do it. In CM, they mostly use Indonesian as Matrix Language (ML) because most of them introduce it in Indonesia. Embedded Language (EL) is usually in Javanese or English. In code-switching, it depends on who send text msgs. If they know English grammar, they can switch appropriately and following the rule of language they use e.g. Indonesian grammar, English grammar, or Javanese grammar.
Farah: “Dluar hujan deres lo. Ati2 yaa.. Thx&good luck anw. Am proud’f you ”
There are violated grammar and punctuations anyway. She missed a space in Dluar (Di Luar), deres (deras), Ati2 yaa.. (Hati-hati ya.), thx&good luck anw. (thank you and good luck anyway), Am proud ‘f you (I am proud of you). She understands the grammar of English and Indonesian but she may reluctantly type several words e.g. I.
Wita: “Tmn2, ad prbhan rescrh qstion LFM, what is the pattern of communication within selling and buying? (ni dah konsul) Qt ngmpul bsk senin ya, jm 9 bwt nylesain.”
She uses CM e.g. rescrh qstion. She mainly uses Indonesian as the matrix language. She unfortunately ignores punctuation in a sentence “what is the pattern of communication within selling and buying?” It is quit ambiguous if the reader does not have the same background knowledge whether it is a question to the recipient or it is a research question of LFM they talked about.
Let me compare to a text given by a lecturer.
Pak Juri :”Eva, Fahmi, hari ini twd tdak ada kuliah. Tolong diinfokan ke teman2. Thanks.”
Pak Juri somehow uses grammar even in a text message. This leads me to a reply text
Ema: “Iya, Pak. Terima kasih.”
I urge me to reply with appropriate answer. I consider my text not like “ya pak.. trima ksh..” I have to use the right punctuations in my text.
So, the grammar within the text msgs really depends on person typing text msgs.
3. Vocabularies
Youngsters sometimes make experiment with words they use in text msgs. They sometimes exaggerate such words either by changing them; replace the vowels or consonants, etc. They really make those words a bit far from the genuine ones. To my opinion, they are really motivated in doing so. I call the type of changing as partially broken either by sound-alike replacement or sound exaggerating replacement. See a table below.
Ne/Nich : ini Gag : gak Humz ;home Buzuk/busyuk : busuk
Mu’uph/maaph : maaf Aq/quw: aku Qta/qt : kita Sich: si
ZMZ/Ms : SMS Qm/qmuw : kamu Bgtzu/bgtyu : begitu Yakz/yuyui/oyi/yupz : ya
Otre/Oks : ok Ngapz/ngup : ngapain ny : x/y ; z : s Abiz/biz : habis
As I mentioned in former paragraphs, usually vocabularies writing systems are changed to make efficient. Bust in some case, they can make it even longer as the table above. We can not judge this kind of changing in systems. Media have help them to change everything innocently.
In conclusion, we see that media, cell phone, make people become more individual. They give a wide sphere to express them and transgress the system e.g. language style, grammar, and vocabularies. It gives confusions, indeed. That is why people vary in using language in text msgs. Some still preserve the grammar and style as if they write a formal writing; some do CS and CM to ease and make efficient characters. It all again comes to motivation and personal choice. So, we see that language use in media e.g. cell phone is potentially different from other media e.g. newspaper, etc and it may also have slight different from chatting language use.
120710209
English Department
Sociolinguistics
Observation Report
Language Use in Text Messages
Cell phone used to be a luxurious stuff but it is now not anymore. To my opinion, almost 70% of people in my surrounding have cell phone; at least each house owns it. Talking about the function, major functions of cell phone are to call and to text (SMS—send message service-- feature). Many young people prefer to text their friends rather than to call. One of reasons is because it is cheaper than to call or they just want to spend their free SMS, especially nowadays there are many phone providers giving promotions of their products—free SMS. To linguistics study, this phenomenon can be observed in term of written text used in media via text message or SMS feature.
Basically, the nature of speaking is different from writing whereas I often notice that text messages function as another form of chatting. The implication of this communication is that trigger them to make writing as simple as speaking. Thus they sometimes make abbreviations, code-switching and code-mixing.
In this report, I would like to describe this phenomenon I have found for years, that is language use in text messages (msgs) via cell phone. The focuses are in language style, grammar, and vocabularies. The objects are text msgs from different people e.g. my university friends, my village or school friends, my families, and my lecturers.
Communication can be done in various ways, direct and indirect. Text msgs cann be regarded as indirect communication because there is a delay process from communicators to communicants. We find that communication can be form of exchanging information, chatting, and so on. I personally use my text msgs as a bridge to communicate with people in distance as if it helps me to make them right by my side. I find no distance with them because we can still talk with written texts via cell phone. It is also cheaper and fun. Therefore, this type of communication, in term of language, has created new styles of language use in our surroundings.
1. Language Style
Text msgs attempt to decode speaking into writing. The problem is when we type in cellphone it is like transcribing our speaking and indeed it takes time, energy, number of text pages in cell phone, and surely pulsa. To make it efficient, people shorten or abbreviate words. See examples below.
+ : tambah Almt : alamat W3 : wa’alaykum salam war. Wab. r : are
- : kurang Anw/ aw : anyway 4 : for Lum : belum
bs : bisa Btw : by the way 2 : to Pyn : sampean
Luv/loph: cinta/love Dah : sudah d@ : that Bro : brother
Ad/da : ada Otw :on the way @ : at K2k : kakak
n ; and/ dan U/Qm/km/qmuw : kamu Diz : this CBB/SBB : sorry/ coyi baru balas
Thx/tq : thanks Ak/aq/q/quw : aku y : ya u/ : untuk
Lt. : lantai Sy/ sya : saya t : ta Klo/lo : kalau
Krn : karena Gag/ gak/ g’/g : gak /tidak Jdwl : jadwal 7an : tujuan
Sbg : sebagai Askum/asslm: assalamu’alaykum Cz : because BG : background
Trz/truz :terus Wiv : with Dunno : don’t know Bt : buat/ but
Kn : kan Hafta : have to Pplz : people Bwt :membuat
Spt : seperti G2G :gotta go Tax : tanya X : kali, nya
Lum/lon/blum : belum Gud, g’ : Good Happy : Hppy C’mtee : committee
I find pattern in the abbreviations made by me and people in writing text msgs. In some words, they change with characters that sound alike e.g. for with 4, don’t know with dunno. They usually delete vowels or consonant if they are unnecessary to write. For instances:
Klmpk : kelompok Bgt : banget Cpek : capek Dtg : datang
Tgs :tugas Disini :dsn Dah : sudah Pulng/plang/plg : pulang
Everyone may have their own way of abbreviating words. Let’s say that this media emphasize on individual usage so that it is all on the owners’ authority. Some omit vowels in the first syllable or last syllable. Some omit all vowels and leave consonants, etc. To some words e.g. SELAMAT becomes met and BELUM becomes lum, users only take the last syllable. I used to feel difficult to erad a text msgs from my friend at the first time I owned my cell phone. As time goes on, I have been accustomed of reading such texts easily but still I have to think twice if I find new abbreviations. The way ones abbreviating can be copied and used in other texts, that is the way I develop my knowledge. Their conventions can make the style of language use developed and heterogeneous. But somehow it still depends to whom we send our text msgs. We still keep positive and negative face in sending texts like we do conversation.
One of language style is the use of code switching (CS) and code mixing (CM). The use of CS and CM happen in the plurality of language variations. I, my self, use three languages in my daily life communication and so do people around me. They at least master two languages. It gives impacts to the way we write text msgs. In real conversation, people use CS and CM because of motivations. It also happens to text msgs. The motivations are mostly to make efficient characters in text msgs or probably to ease their communication. Usually we code-switch common terms e.g THANK YOU with thx or tq or thanks.
Ema: “Coyi…Q g bs dtg k humz u cz q mw prgi ma k2kq. Ne q otw k Grsk. Thx.”
(aku gak bisa datang k house u [rumah kamu] because [karena] pergi sama kakakku. Ini aku on the way ke Gresik. Thanks.)
There are five English words used in indonesian text msgs. I call it as SM because basically I substitute several words: Coyi (sorry/maaf), humz (home/rumah), u (you/kamu), cz (‘cause/karena), otw (on the way/ di jalan) and thx (thanks/terima kasih).
See another example below.
Rita : “I dunno wht 2 do wiv d assgmnt. Can u help me pliz? Kmrn aq g msuk lho..thx”
Ema: “CBB,duh muuph,q lg gag d kos.mudik iki nang deso.ono mantenan.u mending tax yg laen ja yakz.mang gag ad lg yg bntu u nich?ojok mbolos t wingi…hahai..=)”
Rita: “yupz.gp2 kuk. Met lburan yakz.. dont 4get oleh2x..gud nite!”
Tree texts above shows mixed styles. First text uses CS English to Indonesia with abbreviations in the language use. See the translated text below.
Rita : “I don’t know what to do with the assignment. Can you help me please? Kemarin aku gak masuk lho.. thanks”
Ema : “Coyi baru bales,aduh maaf,aku lagi gak di kos.mudik iki nang deso (mudik ke desa).ono mantenan (ada pernikahan). You (kamu) mending tanya yang lain saja ya. Emang gak ada lagi yang bantu you (kamu) ini? Ojok mbolos ta wingi (jangan mboloslah kemarin)…haha..=)”
Rita: “ya, gak apa-apa kok. Selamat liburan ya. Don’t forget oleh-olehnya. Good night!”
It is a fact that abbreviation and some CS and CM save characters in text msgs. Second text also uses CS and CM. Several partial broken words used are gag (gak), nich (ini), hahai (haha), coyi (sorry), yuyui (ya). Second text is also quit various in language style. It shifts from Indonesian to English and Javanese to Indonesia.
Such texts above become the style of youngsters. They like to change words exist with changing consonants or even add with new syllable. This kind of style may be difficult to find in old people text messages. In short, the style of old and youngsters are possibly different.
In my introduction, I mentioned several objects e.g. my university friends, my village or school friends, my families, and my lecturers. Now, I want to explain them one by one.
• University friends
Some of my university friends are from Surabaya and others are from outside of Surabaya. We usually communicate with Indonesian and indeed our text msgs are also in the form of Indonesian or English CM or CS since we are also students of English department. See one of my senior text below.
Hardy Kembar: “Aq blm cgratulate kalian ya. Bttr late thn never. Slmat ya dah dpt 3rd place UMM =) u guys xceded evrybody’s xpectation gud job
(Aku belum congratulate kalian ya. Batter late than necver. Selamat ya sudah dapat third place di UMM =) you guys exceeded everybody’s expectation good job )
He sent me this text last year and I did not understand a word of them xcded (exceeded). I had to think several times that I had to open my dictionary. He used abbreviated word in English and he code-mixed Indonesian to English in the first sentence and code-switch to English. This type of text is often sent to me. If I am not lazy, I reply with English or code-switch Indonesian to English. But if I am lazy to type, I reply it in Indonesia. Sometimes I use abbreviation in English and some do not understand e.g. d@, diz, pplz, g2g, c’mtee, BG, LB, THBT, THW. THS, etc. only several people understand these terms.
• High school friends
I am from Gresik, exactly from a village named Bungah. Most of my friends are around the village. So, our tendency to speak in Javanese is high enough. To communicate with my friends, I usually use Javanese rather than Indonesian. To my text msgs, 80% uses Indonesian and 2.0% uses Javanese or I code-switch or code-mix them. Some of my friends prefer use Javanese and I meanly reply them with Indonesian or code-switch with Javanese. If they are not university students, they usually use many Javanese words and if they are students of university or working in cities, they use Indonesian as the dominant language. For me, I seldom use Javanese because Javanese is difficult to abbreviate and spend many characters. The next example is a text from my friend. He stays in Bungah and works there.
Hadi: “He, kabarmu ke’epo? Gak ono reuni ta arek2?
(He, kabarmu bagaimana? Teman-teman gak ada reoni?)
Ema: “Waduh, q gak ngerti. Dah lama q g smsn ma ank2..hehe..mending pyn tax Menick ja..”
(Waduh, aku gak tau. Sudah lama aku gak SMSan sama anak-anak..hehe)
Hadi: “Oke..suwon2..”
(Oke..terima kasih..)
Below is the text from my friend in Veterinary Faculty.
Kamal: “Wa’alykmslm.. hehew msh zman y da pnja2h.. skg dah merdeka bro.. btw knp u g’ ktmu dy pe’ hr raya..? Q ge liat bola.. u?
(Wa’alaykumsalam.. hehe masih zaman ya ada penjajah.. sekarang sudah merdeka brother.. by the way kenapa you gak katemu dia sampai hari raya..? aku lagi lihat bola.. you?
He code-mixed from Indonesia to English and Javanese. He also uses many abbreviations. Again, it does not guarantee that my village friends uses Javanese all the times. Sometimes people are influenced by their environment.
• My families
If I talk about old people or elder people, they tend to use Javanese and least abbreviations especially those who seldom send text msgs for instance my mother and my uncles. They tend to use Javanese and I dislike it anyway. I can not abbreviate words so I am busy in typing words. So, when I dela with them, I usually use Javanese rather than Indonesian because at home I use Javanese. If I talk about my cousins or my sister, they are not different from me. We often use abbreviations, CM and CS in our text msgs either Indonesian, Javanese, or English.
See these two text messages from my uncle and my sister below.
Cak Thofa : “Ema. Nek sampean jalan2 nang gramedia, sampean golekno buku jdl Membongkar Gerakan Wahabi kry Nur Kholik pnbt Tana Air. Sama Tanya Jawab Akida Aswaja kry Al Habib Zainal Abidn pnbt KALISTA”
My uncle mainly used Javanese and fewer abbreviations. He mostly typed all words. See my Kakak’s text below.
Kakak “Tny hti kcil pyn ja. Tu jwbn yg lbih baik”
She used many abbreviation and a CM in reference (pyn= pean).
If I have to reply a text from my uncle, it will be my respond, “Nggeh, cak. Insyaallah nek ema jalan2 ke gramed.”. To my Kakak, I will say, “Thx kak bt saranx.. lg dilema nich.. tp kykx c q ykin ma yg ne.. doain ja yakz..” I still see whom I communicate with.
• My Lecturers and my boss
Lecturers mostly use formal language in writing text msgs. They also seldom use abbreviation like teenagers or students in popular. It also influences how we, students, write or reply texts for them.
Ema: “Pak Juri, dimana sya bsa mengambil proposal sya? Terima kasih.”
I have to use formal language when I send text. I have to respect them even in my text msgs. Sometimes I have to think the language I use for thousand times before I type whereas I actually want to ask “Pak, prososal sy dmn?thx.”
This situation happens because I perceive text msgs as a real conversation. I have to keep my negative face to respected people like lecturers. This problem in fact happens to most of my friends when they have to deal with elder lecturers. If I have to send to Pak Endhie a text, I may use informal language, abbreviations, CM or SC but I still put reference “Pak” in my sentences.
2. Grammar
People or my friends sometimes really ignore the grammar use in writing text (but for lecturers they may still keep their grammar even when they do CM or CS. We indeed use informal language when we send texts with our peers. We sometimes exaggerate the function of punctuations like “gag tau nich…...” But personally, I will keep my question mark use. Sometimes I am confused by my friend use of question mark e.g. “ne lh ujan deres bgt,,, q malez kluar,,,,jd, hr ne qt gag jd ja yaks kluarx?.” The problem comes to me as the replier. The last sentence there means a question or a sentence. He used a question mark and full stop at the same time. I hate this situation especially when I have limited pulsa. Users really ignore it sometimes.
Besides punctuations, when they make CS or CM, there are patterns how they do it. In CM, they mostly use Indonesian as Matrix Language (ML) because most of them introduce it in Indonesia. Embedded Language (EL) is usually in Javanese or English. In code-switching, it depends on who send text msgs. If they know English grammar, they can switch appropriately and following the rule of language they use e.g. Indonesian grammar, English grammar, or Javanese grammar.
Farah: “Dluar hujan deres lo. Ati2 yaa.. Thx&good luck anw. Am proud’f you ”
There are violated grammar and punctuations anyway. She missed a space in Dluar (Di Luar), deres (deras), Ati2 yaa.. (Hati-hati ya.), thx&good luck anw. (thank you and good luck anyway), Am proud ‘f you (I am proud of you). She understands the grammar of English and Indonesian but she may reluctantly type several words e.g. I.
Wita: “Tmn2, ad prbhan rescrh qstion LFM, what is the pattern of communication within selling and buying? (ni dah konsul) Qt ngmpul bsk senin ya, jm 9 bwt nylesain.”
She uses CM e.g. rescrh qstion. She mainly uses Indonesian as the matrix language. She unfortunately ignores punctuation in a sentence “what is the pattern of communication within selling and buying?” It is quit ambiguous if the reader does not have the same background knowledge whether it is a question to the recipient or it is a research question of LFM they talked about.
Let me compare to a text given by a lecturer.
Pak Juri :”Eva, Fahmi, hari ini twd tdak ada kuliah. Tolong diinfokan ke teman2. Thanks.”
Pak Juri somehow uses grammar even in a text message. This leads me to a reply text
Ema: “Iya, Pak. Terima kasih.”
I urge me to reply with appropriate answer. I consider my text not like “ya pak.. trima ksh..” I have to use the right punctuations in my text.
So, the grammar within the text msgs really depends on person typing text msgs.
3. Vocabularies
Youngsters sometimes make experiment with words they use in text msgs. They sometimes exaggerate such words either by changing them; replace the vowels or consonants, etc. They really make those words a bit far from the genuine ones. To my opinion, they are really motivated in doing so. I call the type of changing as partially broken either by sound-alike replacement or sound exaggerating replacement. See a table below.
Ne/Nich : ini Gag : gak Humz ;home Buzuk/busyuk : busuk
Mu’uph/maaph : maaf Aq/quw: aku Qta/qt : kita Sich: si
ZMZ/Ms : SMS Qm/qmuw : kamu Bgtzu/bgtyu : begitu Yakz/yuyui/oyi/yupz : ya
Otre/Oks : ok Ngapz/ngup : ngapain ny : x/y ; z : s Abiz/biz : habis
As I mentioned in former paragraphs, usually vocabularies writing systems are changed to make efficient. Bust in some case, they can make it even longer as the table above. We can not judge this kind of changing in systems. Media have help them to change everything innocently.
In conclusion, we see that media, cell phone, make people become more individual. They give a wide sphere to express them and transgress the system e.g. language style, grammar, and vocabularies. It gives confusions, indeed. That is why people vary in using language in text msgs. Some still preserve the grammar and style as if they write a formal writing; some do CS and CM to ease and make efficient characters. It all again comes to motivation and personal choice. So, we see that language use in media e.g. cell phone is potentially different from other media e.g. newspaper, etc and it may also have slight different from chatting language use.
socLing
Eva Nur Mazidah
120710209
Sociolinguistics
The Sociolinguistics of Communication Media
Media has apparently penetrated the way we see the world. They give information, interpretation, education, entertainment, etc. Media, in this case, become a bridge and mirror for us to see the reality out there. In this summary, I will give explanation about media discourse in the communication domain and what happens there.
Media are now seen as social institution or domains. They deal with content, recipient (process of communications) and how they are communicated each other. We will see that there is media discourse working in that process. It is believed that media are anyway controversial in term of reflecting ‘reality’ or just ‘co-orchestrate’ the reality. To this fact, some argues that somehow media discourse still give a degree of mediation in providing content. Towards the production of messages, they are also controlled by factors through a hierarchy of levels and responsibilities. In the other hand, recipients are dilemmatic with media restriction in access and participation has created much controversy whereas media has designed messages for audience. In conclusion, media can be regarded as a specific communicative structure providing content (public idiom) and media discourse proceeds content into media messages to whom the message is addressed.
The details of media discourse refer to forms, structures, language use and semiotic codes in media, and so on. Media discourse in certain ways needs differentiating from the messages they transfer e.g. programs. Therefore, there are three dimensions of messages and media discourse. First dimension is the production point of view, low level out-put to which recipients are exposed their reaction, for instance an interview with President Nelson Mandela (the interface of two dimension). Secondly, processing of content occurs at several layers of an institutional hierarchy. Low-level output is the form of the program format e.g. news, spots reports, etc. which can be grouped into categories in terms of orientation. The low-level of messages are shaped in spatiotemporal sequences. Third dimension shows how it is transmitted as media messages. At the end of the day, language which is the central carrier of low-level messages and of messages sequences plays an important role in shaping belief system to come to dominate.
The linguistic study which can be done trough media are, for example, discourse structure of interviews, model of macro-text for international press reports, content analysis, language policies and attitudes, syntactic features of style in live reports, and so forth.
When media select content from reported domains, they proceed the content again based on cognitive frameworks linguistic norms, professional practices, etc. toward the recipients, they are not bound as the messages dimensions bound the media. To make stable recipients, communication media should include recipients’ needs and expectations early in messages. It is to integrate diverging norms with reported domains.
Upon linguistics theories, there are also two terms called presentation (styles) and representation (content). Presentation deals with language standardization while representation sees how language influences cognition and interpretation of ‘reality’. They function as vehicle for how language and what is expressed.
Seeing media function in society, we find that media is as public forum and public use of media discourse. Media has to answer how well or poorly their media discourse works as it is expected to do, for instance the role of standards in the BBC is done in terms of sociopolitical demands as the impact of the language repertoire in society at large. In some cases, because of media language, dialects are jeopardized and media language influences shifts in multicultural societies. Thus, there is a premise that media language comes to being ‘real’.
To my conclusion, we can not deny that there are influences of media in our atmosphere. Whether they bring more harms than good or vice versa, we can not limit its development. To some stances, we still need them get education, information, entertainment, etc., other stances, some dialects are jeopardized. To media itself, it is not enough to see the world with their point of views, they need to see the recipients’ point of view so that it can be bridge to many sides, not creating more gap to different recipients, and towards sociolinguistics, phenomena emerging in media can be field of further research.
120710209
Sociolinguistics
The Sociolinguistics of Communication Media
Media has apparently penetrated the way we see the world. They give information, interpretation, education, entertainment, etc. Media, in this case, become a bridge and mirror for us to see the reality out there. In this summary, I will give explanation about media discourse in the communication domain and what happens there.
Media are now seen as social institution or domains. They deal with content, recipient (process of communications) and how they are communicated each other. We will see that there is media discourse working in that process. It is believed that media are anyway controversial in term of reflecting ‘reality’ or just ‘co-orchestrate’ the reality. To this fact, some argues that somehow media discourse still give a degree of mediation in providing content. Towards the production of messages, they are also controlled by factors through a hierarchy of levels and responsibilities. In the other hand, recipients are dilemmatic with media restriction in access and participation has created much controversy whereas media has designed messages for audience. In conclusion, media can be regarded as a specific communicative structure providing content (public idiom) and media discourse proceeds content into media messages to whom the message is addressed.
The details of media discourse refer to forms, structures, language use and semiotic codes in media, and so on. Media discourse in certain ways needs differentiating from the messages they transfer e.g. programs. Therefore, there are three dimensions of messages and media discourse. First dimension is the production point of view, low level out-put to which recipients are exposed their reaction, for instance an interview with President Nelson Mandela (the interface of two dimension). Secondly, processing of content occurs at several layers of an institutional hierarchy. Low-level output is the form of the program format e.g. news, spots reports, etc. which can be grouped into categories in terms of orientation. The low-level of messages are shaped in spatiotemporal sequences. Third dimension shows how it is transmitted as media messages. At the end of the day, language which is the central carrier of low-level messages and of messages sequences plays an important role in shaping belief system to come to dominate.
The linguistic study which can be done trough media are, for example, discourse structure of interviews, model of macro-text for international press reports, content analysis, language policies and attitudes, syntactic features of style in live reports, and so forth.
When media select content from reported domains, they proceed the content again based on cognitive frameworks linguistic norms, professional practices, etc. toward the recipients, they are not bound as the messages dimensions bound the media. To make stable recipients, communication media should include recipients’ needs and expectations early in messages. It is to integrate diverging norms with reported domains.
Upon linguistics theories, there are also two terms called presentation (styles) and representation (content). Presentation deals with language standardization while representation sees how language influences cognition and interpretation of ‘reality’. They function as vehicle for how language and what is expressed.
Seeing media function in society, we find that media is as public forum and public use of media discourse. Media has to answer how well or poorly their media discourse works as it is expected to do, for instance the role of standards in the BBC is done in terms of sociopolitical demands as the impact of the language repertoire in society at large. In some cases, because of media language, dialects are jeopardized and media language influences shifts in multicultural societies. Thus, there is a premise that media language comes to being ‘real’.
To my conclusion, we can not deny that there are influences of media in our atmosphere. Whether they bring more harms than good or vice versa, we can not limit its development. To some stances, we still need them get education, information, entertainment, etc., other stances, some dialects are jeopardized. To media itself, it is not enough to see the world with their point of views, they need to see the recipients’ point of view so that it can be bridge to many sides, not creating more gap to different recipients, and towards sociolinguistics, phenomena emerging in media can be field of further research.
Selasa, 30 Maret 2010
reading texts
Eva Nur Mazidah
120710209
English Department
Reading Texts
Wednesday class
Text, in fact, can bring us into world of imaginations. Readers are stimulated into the story in text. Text sends stimuli to readers mind and invite the readers to emerge their projections of characters and events within text. Readers are taken over by the text and be part of the text. The more they enjoy or get pleasure in reading the text, the more they see the text as reality. Thus, it is explained by Iser that text can make readers experience its living event.
Stimuli
Text -------------------- reading----------------reaction
Expectation actual event (response will be different after some times)
Reading a text, readers do process of perceiving and dynamic interaction. Somehow this process is only done by readers not the text they read. Suffice to say, the ones adopting is the readers. It is because text is consistent until the end of the day, the beginning, the ending, characters, plot, setting, and such remain the same. It is the readers who contact with text so that they can understand what they are about. The readers are to crack down the network of possible connection and to fill the gaps in the text. It is they who follow the guidance provided by text. Thus, text never adapts to whom they are read but readers adapt by themselves to be in the text.
It is not for from “text as the living event”. Readers may have different imagination about the text they are reading. They use their background knowledge and experience to decode the information in the text (making projection). Thus text brings them to get involved in text. They are provoked to be part of it. They may be mad, sad, happy, etc. when they read it. Sure, we are brought to the situation and leave who we are—we live in our projections but it is not completely total. In short, we are in illusion-forming and illusion-breaking; we are living in another live within story and at the same time we realize that we are awake.
Reading and interpretion is different. Reading means that readers make interaction with the text. There is a process of internalization and transfer of information in the text to the readers. The process of interpretation can be gained after the process of internalizing the text is done. We can interpret what the text wants after we finish reading all of it. Simply, interpretation is the extent of reading process and everyone may have different interpretation towards the text.
Readers and text have asymmetrical relationship. In reading text, it is readers who adapt the text. In fact. Text is always constant and unchanged. Somehow text also has gaps and readers are supposed to fill the gaps with their knowledge in order to gain the aim of the text. Text only becomes the guidance and controller for readers. In first reading, readers are trying to make meta-perspective (assumption) and then they make adaptation based on their assumptions. In short, the text is inadaptable but us.
120710209
English Department
Reading Texts
Wednesday class
Text, in fact, can bring us into world of imaginations. Readers are stimulated into the story in text. Text sends stimuli to readers mind and invite the readers to emerge their projections of characters and events within text. Readers are taken over by the text and be part of the text. The more they enjoy or get pleasure in reading the text, the more they see the text as reality. Thus, it is explained by Iser that text can make readers experience its living event.
Stimuli
Text -------------------- reading----------------reaction
Expectation actual event (response will be different after some times)
Reading a text, readers do process of perceiving and dynamic interaction. Somehow this process is only done by readers not the text they read. Suffice to say, the ones adopting is the readers. It is because text is consistent until the end of the day, the beginning, the ending, characters, plot, setting, and such remain the same. It is the readers who contact with text so that they can understand what they are about. The readers are to crack down the network of possible connection and to fill the gaps in the text. It is they who follow the guidance provided by text. Thus, text never adapts to whom they are read but readers adapt by themselves to be in the text.
It is not for from “text as the living event”. Readers may have different imagination about the text they are reading. They use their background knowledge and experience to decode the information in the text (making projection). Thus text brings them to get involved in text. They are provoked to be part of it. They may be mad, sad, happy, etc. when they read it. Sure, we are brought to the situation and leave who we are—we live in our projections but it is not completely total. In short, we are in illusion-forming and illusion-breaking; we are living in another live within story and at the same time we realize that we are awake.
Reading and interpretion is different. Reading means that readers make interaction with the text. There is a process of internalization and transfer of information in the text to the readers. The process of interpretation can be gained after the process of internalizing the text is done. We can interpret what the text wants after we finish reading all of it. Simply, interpretation is the extent of reading process and everyone may have different interpretation towards the text.
Readers and text have asymmetrical relationship. In reading text, it is readers who adapt the text. In fact. Text is always constant and unchanged. Somehow text also has gaps and readers are supposed to fill the gaps with their knowledge in order to gain the aim of the text. Text only becomes the guidance and controller for readers. In first reading, readers are trying to make meta-perspective (assumption) and then they make adaptation based on their assumptions. In short, the text is inadaptable but us.
Pragmatics
Lailul Maulidiyah 120710199
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Verdiana P. 120710233
Ruri Fadhilah K. 120710242
Pragmatics Assignment II
Section 2, Text 2 on page 92
1. What do you think is the ‘invariant core’ meaning of the word ‘ball’ as proposed here? Can you think of any use of the word ‘ball’ that would not have that ‘core’ meaning? Can ‘the context’ cause a word not to have its ‘core’ meaning?
Invariant core meaning comes up in the word “ball” proposed here is the round volume thing used in sports depends on the context(what sports). For instance when we use “ball” in the context of sports by signifying what actions are given towards the ball e.g. dribbling, serving, kicking, etc. these actions help us to understand what ball is used and meant.
“Will you come to the ball?”
“Mmm,, I’ve another ball.”
The dialogue above shows that ball does not have to be round volume thing used in sports. Here “ball” means a party. It means that “ball” can have other meaning that is not the “invariant core” meaning.
Indeed context plays significant role in determining what “ball” refers to. Somehow in general knowledge “ball” means round volume thing in sports. It also opens possibility of other meanings e.g. party, part of body, etc. if it is given such certain context. For example:
“We will come to the ball tonight.”
“I have prepared my ball dress.”
“Saskia will not come because she hurt ball of her hand.”
“Is her ball badly injured?”
“Yes, because she was carelessly smashing the ball.”
“Well, she should be on the ball.”
2. What does the term ‘context’ seem to refer to in this text? If you have a different concept of ‘context’, how would you revise this paragraph to illustrate it more clearly?
The meaning of context here is the physical environment or circumstances or setting in which a word is used. Context in text 2 means the actions given towards the ball. It is that guides us to understand what ball the text means.
We assume that it is quiet understandable within the situation that involved in the text.
3. In that ways is the view of pragmatic in this text similar to or different from the way pragmatics is defined in text?
We believe that the view of text I and text 2 is different. The difference is upon the sentence and the context. In text I, we are only given context of situation of an action. While in text 2, we are given both sentences and contexts.
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Verdiana P. 120710233
Ruri Fadhilah K. 120710242
Pragmatics Assignment II
Section 2, Text 2 on page 92
1. What do you think is the ‘invariant core’ meaning of the word ‘ball’ as proposed here? Can you think of any use of the word ‘ball’ that would not have that ‘core’ meaning? Can ‘the context’ cause a word not to have its ‘core’ meaning?
Invariant core meaning comes up in the word “ball” proposed here is the round volume thing used in sports depends on the context(what sports). For instance when we use “ball” in the context of sports by signifying what actions are given towards the ball e.g. dribbling, serving, kicking, etc. these actions help us to understand what ball is used and meant.
“Will you come to the ball?”
“Mmm,, I’ve another ball.”
The dialogue above shows that ball does not have to be round volume thing used in sports. Here “ball” means a party. It means that “ball” can have other meaning that is not the “invariant core” meaning.
Indeed context plays significant role in determining what “ball” refers to. Somehow in general knowledge “ball” means round volume thing in sports. It also opens possibility of other meanings e.g. party, part of body, etc. if it is given such certain context. For example:
“We will come to the ball tonight.”
“I have prepared my ball dress.”
“Saskia will not come because she hurt ball of her hand.”
“Is her ball badly injured?”
“Yes, because she was carelessly smashing the ball.”
“Well, she should be on the ball.”
2. What does the term ‘context’ seem to refer to in this text? If you have a different concept of ‘context’, how would you revise this paragraph to illustrate it more clearly?
The meaning of context here is the physical environment or circumstances or setting in which a word is used. Context in text 2 means the actions given towards the ball. It is that guides us to understand what ball the text means.
We assume that it is quiet understandable within the situation that involved in the text.
3. In that ways is the view of pragmatic in this text similar to or different from the way pragmatics is defined in text?
We believe that the view of text I and text 2 is different. The difference is upon the sentence and the context. In text I, we are only given context of situation of an action. While in text 2, we are given both sentences and contexts.
Senin, 08 Februari 2010
Teaching Assist.
EVA NUR MAZIDAH
120710209
TEACHING ASSISTANTSHIP
MIDTERM TEST
HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH SPEAKING
Speaking is one of the most prior skills that need to be had by language learners. In this case speaking activities are perhaps what students and teachers demand the most in terms of the affective involved. Some students may have anxiety in front of the class when they are asked to do presentation, etc. They are afraid of being incomprehensible, losing face, or even shy. Therefore, teachers have a major responsibility to create a good classroom environment where students can be prepared to take risk and experiment with language so that students can produce good pronunciation, vocabulary and structure accurately and more freely in practicing purposeful communication.
Classroom management becomes a key in the complex structure of some communication activities. There is a jigsaw task which combines reading, note-taking, reporting in group and discussing. What a teacher needs to do during those phases are careful directing, organizing, and monitoring. The principle key in jigsaw is started from simple pairwork activities to more ambitious activity. Pairwork might involve giving an explanation of what is needed with a teacher demonstration, the teacher asking the class to recap--two students to try it out, monitoring as the pairwork starts so that the teacher know whether or not each pair is on task and understands what to do. Though it is like ‘simple’ pairwork but it has so many factors determining its success. Age, gender and personality are the influences in making pairwork difficult experience and making oneself understood. These are two possibilities in making pairwork-- either through self-selecting, teacher-selecting or random-selecting—and teacher also needs to know the good and the bad of each selecting—levels of the students’ ability. The implications of pairwork would include in the ideal size of a group for a particular activity—in some information gap or problem solving tasks, the best way of selecting group members, the length of time discussion. Other activities are Role-play which can vary e.g. from simple dialogue taken from specific information on role cards, etc, and simulation which help students in groupwork and class discussion.
Group discussion provides opportunities to develop aspects of interpersonal communication and even fluency. Students can share their interests, opinions, histories, etc. they here are invited to give their opinion, agree or disagree, state preferences, etc. In discussion activities, what teachers do is in decision-making such how mush support to give for content and how this is presented; how much to structure the activity with phases and group roles; whether to establish or set a goal; how to organize feedback; how to encourage participation as much as possible.
Talking with students about spoken English, teachers have a chance of two basic approaches of conversation aspects, direct and indirect. In direct approach, it is applied a system analysis of systemic of speaking competence and takes students through a program of awareness rising and practice. The indirect approach simply involves students in conversation either through role-play and problem-solving tasks and gives them chances to practice in classroom activities.
In speaking, integrating pronunciation is required. Many teachers believe that pronunciation is also difficult work due to awkwardness, inhibition, embarrassment, etc. When teachers deal with new materials and new vocabularies, they should integrate the pronunciation before they move on to recognize and practice. The easiest aspects to integrate are on individual sounds, word stress, sentence stress and various types of linking. It is a fact that some students may not pronounce well therefore correction on pronunciation in this case needs to be done in as positive way as possible.
It was stated that recent years had seen a debate about the value of error correction in the classroom. It is believed that correction by the teacher is of dubious value. Due to this, it is needed comparing between systematic errors—incomplete or faulty knowledge of English and mistakes—inability to perform that knowledge in production e.g. carelessness, tiredness, distractions, etc. Teacher needs to know which errors to correct and impede communication. Global errors cause misunderstanding by the listener and local errors tend to relate only to part of what is said. There are some techniques treating errors e.g. noting down errors or separating words and giving these to them for reflection, recording the activity and asking students to listen and see if they can identify and correct errors, making note ‘key’ errors, noting down examples of errors and using these for a game in the next class.
It is true that correction is considered to be one of the most complex aspects in the classroom management which requires judgment and skill. For learners, this helps a wider process of recognizing and understanding their errors and having chances to try and try again in speaking activity.
There are many ways in boosting s[peaking ability in classroom. One of them is reduced here. Some strategies that are proposed can be insights to experimenting with different activities. Giving challenge to pose students activities and teachers’ management skills would be advantageous in developing speaking skill.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hedge, Tricia. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. NY: Oxford University Press.
120710209
TEACHING ASSISTANTSHIP
MIDTERM TEST
HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH SPEAKING
Speaking is one of the most prior skills that need to be had by language learners. In this case speaking activities are perhaps what students and teachers demand the most in terms of the affective involved. Some students may have anxiety in front of the class when they are asked to do presentation, etc. They are afraid of being incomprehensible, losing face, or even shy. Therefore, teachers have a major responsibility to create a good classroom environment where students can be prepared to take risk and experiment with language so that students can produce good pronunciation, vocabulary and structure accurately and more freely in practicing purposeful communication.
Classroom management becomes a key in the complex structure of some communication activities. There is a jigsaw task which combines reading, note-taking, reporting in group and discussing. What a teacher needs to do during those phases are careful directing, organizing, and monitoring. The principle key in jigsaw is started from simple pairwork activities to more ambitious activity. Pairwork might involve giving an explanation of what is needed with a teacher demonstration, the teacher asking the class to recap--two students to try it out, monitoring as the pairwork starts so that the teacher know whether or not each pair is on task and understands what to do. Though it is like ‘simple’ pairwork but it has so many factors determining its success. Age, gender and personality are the influences in making pairwork difficult experience and making oneself understood. These are two possibilities in making pairwork-- either through self-selecting, teacher-selecting or random-selecting—and teacher also needs to know the good and the bad of each selecting—levels of the students’ ability. The implications of pairwork would include in the ideal size of a group for a particular activity—in some information gap or problem solving tasks, the best way of selecting group members, the length of time discussion. Other activities are Role-play which can vary e.g. from simple dialogue taken from specific information on role cards, etc, and simulation which help students in groupwork and class discussion.
Group discussion provides opportunities to develop aspects of interpersonal communication and even fluency. Students can share their interests, opinions, histories, etc. they here are invited to give their opinion, agree or disagree, state preferences, etc. In discussion activities, what teachers do is in decision-making such how mush support to give for content and how this is presented; how much to structure the activity with phases and group roles; whether to establish or set a goal; how to organize feedback; how to encourage participation as much as possible.
Talking with students about spoken English, teachers have a chance of two basic approaches of conversation aspects, direct and indirect. In direct approach, it is applied a system analysis of systemic of speaking competence and takes students through a program of awareness rising and practice. The indirect approach simply involves students in conversation either through role-play and problem-solving tasks and gives them chances to practice in classroom activities.
In speaking, integrating pronunciation is required. Many teachers believe that pronunciation is also difficult work due to awkwardness, inhibition, embarrassment, etc. When teachers deal with new materials and new vocabularies, they should integrate the pronunciation before they move on to recognize and practice. The easiest aspects to integrate are on individual sounds, word stress, sentence stress and various types of linking. It is a fact that some students may not pronounce well therefore correction on pronunciation in this case needs to be done in as positive way as possible.
It was stated that recent years had seen a debate about the value of error correction in the classroom. It is believed that correction by the teacher is of dubious value. Due to this, it is needed comparing between systematic errors—incomplete or faulty knowledge of English and mistakes—inability to perform that knowledge in production e.g. carelessness, tiredness, distractions, etc. Teacher needs to know which errors to correct and impede communication. Global errors cause misunderstanding by the listener and local errors tend to relate only to part of what is said. There are some techniques treating errors e.g. noting down errors or separating words and giving these to them for reflection, recording the activity and asking students to listen and see if they can identify and correct errors, making note ‘key’ errors, noting down examples of errors and using these for a game in the next class.
It is true that correction is considered to be one of the most complex aspects in the classroom management which requires judgment and skill. For learners, this helps a wider process of recognizing and understanding their errors and having chances to try and try again in speaking activity.
There are many ways in boosting s[peaking ability in classroom. One of them is reduced here. Some strategies that are proposed can be insights to experimenting with different activities. Giving challenge to pose students activities and teachers’ management skills would be advantageous in developing speaking skill.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hedge, Tricia. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. NY: Oxford University Press.
DRAMA I
Lailul Maulidiyah 120710199
Novita Arianti 120710205
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Novaisah 120710223
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
Scene III
There is a messenger from Corinth giving information to Oedipus that his father, Polybos, dies because of old age. Oedipus is asked to be the king of Corinth. Oedipus is surprised because his father’s dead is not because of him. The messenger—after being told about the prophecy—believes the prophecy has been wrong. The messenger, then, asks him to go back to his town but Oed rejects it since he is afraid of another prophecy about his sleeping with his mother. The messenger tells Oed not to be afraid of the propechy since Polybos is not his father. Long ago, An old man is led in by Oedipus’ servants and identified as the herdsman, the man who gave the baby to the Corinthian messenger so many years ago: Oedipus insists on him revealing exactly what he knows. The messenger says that Oedipus is that same baby, who was abandoned by his father and mother - and the herdsman reacts with fear and begs the messenger to hold his tongue.
Oedipus threatens the messenger with physical violence, and finally the man confesses that the baby was a child of Laius's house. Oedipus asks if it was a slave's child or Laius's child, and the shepherd confesses that it was Laius's child - a child that Jocasta gave him to expose on the hillside because of a prophecy that he would kill his father. The shepherd says he didn't have the heart to kill the infant, so he took it to another country instead. “They will all come, / all come out clearly!” cries Oedipus. “Light of the sun, let me / look on you no more!” (1183-4). He has finally realized what has happened and all exit except the Chorus. The Chorus reflects on the mutable nature of human happiness - all happiness, they say, is only “a seeming” and “after that turning away” (1191-2). Nobody can ultimately escape fate.
Since Polybos doesnt have children, he feels so happy of having Oed as his son. Asked by Oed, the messenger says that the sepherd is the King Laios’. Oed insists to reveal the truth about who his father is but Yokaste says that knowing his father actually is not a necessity and he’d better stop searching. But Oed doesn’t listen to her and still insists to reveal the truth. Not being listened by Oed, Yakoste leaves the room in grief and sorrow. Both Choragos and Oed wonder why Yakoste is so full of sorrow when leaving the room. Then, Oed asks Choragos to find the shepherd meant by the messenger.
Scene IV
The shepherd is bought into the room. Oed asks the messenger to tell something in order to remind the shepherd about the time when he gives him the little boy. The shepherd remembers and says that it is him who brings the little boy. The messenger tell him that Oed is that baby. The shepherd is shocked. When Oed asks him who his father is, the shepherd doesn’t want to tell him. After being asked and threaten, the shepherd says that it is Polybos’ son, but if he wants to know more about that he needs to ask his wife since it is Yakoste who gives him the boy and aks him to kill him. It is because there is a prophecy saying that the boy will kill his father. Because he pities the boy, the shepherd doesnt kill him and gives him to his friend—the messenger. Finally, Oed finds that the prophecy has been true. He has kills his own father Polybos and marry his own mother Yakoste.
Exodos
There is a messenger from Oed’s palace. He tells Choragos that the Queen is dead. But he doesnt know how and why. Before that he sees Yakoste running towards her room. When he finds her she’s been dead, hanging and swaying. Oed finds his mother, looses the rope, and loweres her to the groung. He cries and sobs. Then he takes brooches from his mother’s gown and plunges them stright to his eyes so many times until the blood spatters his beard. He shouts that he doesnt want to see anymore misery in life. Oed, blinded, comes in. Choragos asks him who causes this all and Oed aswers that it is Appolo. He causes him to kill his father and marry his mother but not the blinding. It’s useless for him to have eyes that can only see horrors. ). Oedipus begs to be cast out of Thebes. Creon replies that he must wait for instructions from Apollo. Oedipus argues that Apollo's instructions were clear: the unclean man must leave Thebes. Oedipus also asks Creon to bury Jocasta properly and to take care of his daughters. But before he goes, he begs to see his daughters once more. These girls, Antigone and Ismene are led in, and Oedipus caresses them with hands that are both father's and brother's. He weeps for the fact that they will never be able to find husbands with this tragic family lineage. With Creon's promise that he will send him away from Thebes to fulfill Apollo's word, Oedipus releases his children and he and Creon enter the palace again. He begs Kreon to be the father of his daughters because he is afraid that his daughters will stay unmarried if people know that their father is Oed. Oed asks Kreon to send him to Kithairon, a wild hill. Before going, Oed says goodbye to his daughtrs and sons.
Novita Arianti 120710205
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Novaisah 120710223
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
Scene III
There is a messenger from Corinth giving information to Oedipus that his father, Polybos, dies because of old age. Oedipus is asked to be the king of Corinth. Oedipus is surprised because his father’s dead is not because of him. The messenger—after being told about the prophecy—believes the prophecy has been wrong. The messenger, then, asks him to go back to his town but Oed rejects it since he is afraid of another prophecy about his sleeping with his mother. The messenger tells Oed not to be afraid of the propechy since Polybos is not his father. Long ago, An old man is led in by Oedipus’ servants and identified as the herdsman, the man who gave the baby to the Corinthian messenger so many years ago: Oedipus insists on him revealing exactly what he knows. The messenger says that Oedipus is that same baby, who was abandoned by his father and mother - and the herdsman reacts with fear and begs the messenger to hold his tongue.
Oedipus threatens the messenger with physical violence, and finally the man confesses that the baby was a child of Laius's house. Oedipus asks if it was a slave's child or Laius's child, and the shepherd confesses that it was Laius's child - a child that Jocasta gave him to expose on the hillside because of a prophecy that he would kill his father. The shepherd says he didn't have the heart to kill the infant, so he took it to another country instead. “They will all come, / all come out clearly!” cries Oedipus. “Light of the sun, let me / look on you no more!” (1183-4). He has finally realized what has happened and all exit except the Chorus. The Chorus reflects on the mutable nature of human happiness - all happiness, they say, is only “a seeming” and “after that turning away” (1191-2). Nobody can ultimately escape fate.
Since Polybos doesnt have children, he feels so happy of having Oed as his son. Asked by Oed, the messenger says that the sepherd is the King Laios’. Oed insists to reveal the truth about who his father is but Yokaste says that knowing his father actually is not a necessity and he’d better stop searching. But Oed doesn’t listen to her and still insists to reveal the truth. Not being listened by Oed, Yakoste leaves the room in grief and sorrow. Both Choragos and Oed wonder why Yakoste is so full of sorrow when leaving the room. Then, Oed asks Choragos to find the shepherd meant by the messenger.
Scene IV
The shepherd is bought into the room. Oed asks the messenger to tell something in order to remind the shepherd about the time when he gives him the little boy. The shepherd remembers and says that it is him who brings the little boy. The messenger tell him that Oed is that baby. The shepherd is shocked. When Oed asks him who his father is, the shepherd doesn’t want to tell him. After being asked and threaten, the shepherd says that it is Polybos’ son, but if he wants to know more about that he needs to ask his wife since it is Yakoste who gives him the boy and aks him to kill him. It is because there is a prophecy saying that the boy will kill his father. Because he pities the boy, the shepherd doesnt kill him and gives him to his friend—the messenger. Finally, Oed finds that the prophecy has been true. He has kills his own father Polybos and marry his own mother Yakoste.
Exodos
There is a messenger from Oed’s palace. He tells Choragos that the Queen is dead. But he doesnt know how and why. Before that he sees Yakoste running towards her room. When he finds her she’s been dead, hanging and swaying. Oed finds his mother, looses the rope, and loweres her to the groung. He cries and sobs. Then he takes brooches from his mother’s gown and plunges them stright to his eyes so many times until the blood spatters his beard. He shouts that he doesnt want to see anymore misery in life. Oed, blinded, comes in. Choragos asks him who causes this all and Oed aswers that it is Appolo. He causes him to kill his father and marry his mother but not the blinding. It’s useless for him to have eyes that can only see horrors. ). Oedipus begs to be cast out of Thebes. Creon replies that he must wait for instructions from Apollo. Oedipus argues that Apollo's instructions were clear: the unclean man must leave Thebes. Oedipus also asks Creon to bury Jocasta properly and to take care of his daughters. But before he goes, he begs to see his daughters once more. These girls, Antigone and Ismene are led in, and Oedipus caresses them with hands that are both father's and brother's. He weeps for the fact that they will never be able to find husbands with this tragic family lineage. With Creon's promise that he will send him away from Thebes to fulfill Apollo's word, Oedipus releases his children and he and Creon enter the palace again. He begs Kreon to be the father of his daughters because he is afraid that his daughters will stay unmarried if people know that their father is Oed. Oed asks Kreon to send him to Kithairon, a wild hill. Before going, Oed says goodbye to his daughtrs and sons.
Sabtu, 16 Januari 2010
PsychoLinguistics
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEAF CHILDREN
IN ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
This paper is made as the requirement of final assignment of Psycholinguistics
By:
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY
2010
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEAF CHILDREN
IN ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION
Around the world, there are found thousands people having hearing loss—deaf—either from birth or injury, accident, etc. When it is from birth, there are some possibilities e.g. meningitis or an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (Kail, 2007). Human conversation typically takes place within a frequency range of 200 to 800 Hz (around 60 decibels). Deaf people have limitation in hearing the loudness of the signal. Several symptoms can be detected for instances baby never responds to sudden loud sounds, never turns its head to react sound in age of 4 or 5 months, does not respond when its name is called at age of 8 or 9 months, does not imitate speech sound and simple words at the age of 12 months. It is also possible that those children born from hearing couple, hearing and deaf couple or deaf couple. It might not be too serious problem if they are born I deaf family because they will acquire the same langrage. It will be very difficult in other side when they are born around normal people because they will be forced to acquire what they are not able—spoken language.
In fact, hearing people find difficulties to communicate with deaf people. One of the ways to communicate with them is through sign language. Kyle and Woll (1985) emphasizes it is neither a new language nor a new system developed by haring people; rather it is naturally occurring form of communication among deaf people. Linguists have come to analyze it as a true natural language. It shares features grammatical processes with other spoken language.
Language develops time after time not only in spoken language but also in sign language. They are for instance Dalgano’s alphabet, Digiti Lingua—old form 18th and 19th century and modern form—for finger spellings--, American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign Language (BSL).
When hearing children are exposed to learn the spoken language of their parents and of society, the deaf children, in another side, are also expected to achieve the same goal. Education for deaf children begins at the age of 3 years or earlier—family interaction (Kyle and Woll, 1985). During their first year parents will often be uncertainty towards their children’s deafness. Indeed the way their parents treat them may be different. Some methods used to treat their children resembled a speech mediation program e.g. hearing aid. Truly the deaf children are linguistically inept and need careful tutoring to learn language. Meadow (1972) found that deaf children (average age 14 months) had a language age of 28 months or less. It shows that there is a delay in deaf children’s degree of acquiring language—low. When they are exposed to lip reading or speech comprehension, there are no significant improvements as they grow older. . In their longitudinal study of milestone in word acquisition by deaf children aged from 15-18 months to 4 years, they found that the first word appearing at an average age of 16 months,10 words at 23 months, 50 words at 29 months and 100 words at 34 months(compared to hearing children 11, 12, 19 and 20 respectively (Kyle, 1981). To conclude these, the language development of deaf children is highly different either in quality and speed of development.
There are reviews on how deaf children develop socially and emotionally. From studies, deaf children are immature, disassociated or aloof, impulsive or lacking insight, lacking f self-confidence or initiative. Somehow, in other side, they have degree of maturity correlated with communicative competence (Kyle and Woll, 1985).
In this paper, some subtopics are discussed namely the grammar of the sign language—BSL and ASL, the language acquisition of deaf children, the acquisition of sign, verbal language, non-verbal language, and their combination.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What kind of language is used by deaf children or people? How is the morphology and syntax of their grammar--BSL?
2. How do deaf children acquire sign, verbal language, non-verbal language and their combination?
METHODOLOGY
This paper will be done with library study. Our focus is on the journals and researches about deafness, especially in children. We try to find from those data the sign used by the deaf children and how they acquire them. We also try to find comparison between hearing children and deaf children in the aspects of acquiring sign and language.
We then try to analyze the data we get from the books, journals and research to find the conclusion about what kind of language is used by deaf children or people, how the morphology and syntax of their grammar—BSL is, and how the deaf children acquire their language, especially for those under five years old. We hope that this library study can be used as a help for another research or data collection.
ANALYSIS
A. Sign Morphology and Syntax: the Grammar of British Sign Language
The morphology of BSL is very complex-relatively inflected-that specific information about case, number, aspect and tense is found. One of the specific information is number. It is either plural or singular marking of nouns. If English uses –s as the marker, BSL shows plurality by repeating a sign rather than by suffixing some elements. Next, it is about classifiers. Both ASL and BSL construct and be labeled as predicate classifier language e.g. a BSL verb stem meaning ‘to go under a bridge’ is presented by motion of the right hand under the left hand. Hand-shapes can function as number inserted into signs with temporal meaning classifiers (by means of indicating number in sign morphology). Move to case and role, in BSL, information is conveyed by in an entirely different way. In English conversation, speakers may point to locations indicating a person or object. BSL and other sign language somehow use combination of conventionalized, relative and real locations. For years, it was a fact that sign language had no tens system, unlike spoken language (present, past and future). Recently, it indicates that at least two ways can be used to indicate tense or time relationship in BSL and that may be like English for at least some verbs. It is done by adverbial modification e.g. TOMORROW, YESTERDAY I COOK, etc. (Kyle and Woll, 1985).
As with morphology, the analysis of BSL syntax here will look at how different types of sentence are formed. There are some possibilities in word order typology e.g. subject-verb-object, verb-subject-object, topic-comment, and s on. English has S-V-O typology, ASL uses S-V-O (Fischer, 1975) while BSL uses topic-comment (Deuchar, 1983). Look at the example below
VO CLEAN ALL (I cleaned everything) (T) C
OV TEN.p.PUT.IN (I put in lop) T C
SV FATHER FALL (Father fell) TC
If those three sentences are analyzed, there are three different sentences. Here Deuchar analyzes themas topic-comment because topics may have generally recordings of spontaneous singing. They believe that in the simultaneous use of both handy in topic-comment construction.
Apparently all languages have sentence types e.g. declarative and interrogative. These two types are usually treated by their word order. If spoken language intonation can influence whether the sentence is either declarative or interrogative, BSL uses facial expression as the role of intonation. To ask WH-question, they share a hand-shape and movement (five fingers extended, separated and wiggling) (Kyle and Woll, 1985). They include holding hands out, fingers pointing away, palm up, heel of hand higher than fingertips; pointing addressee; prolonging the duration of the last sign or facial expression, etc.
Kyle and Woll resume the early development studies, 0-2 years
.
These are the findings by Volterra (1983) about the
B. Deaf children’s acquisition of sign, verbal language, non-verbal language, and their combination
The factor helping deaf children in acquiring sign and competence according to Erting (1978, 1980) and Meadow (1980) is the interaction with older deaf children and adults. And it is proven that, according to Carol J. Earting’s research, the deaf children who have deaf parents or who interact with older deaf children or adults (e.g. teacher) can acquire sign and competence easily.
The research done by Erting has effectively shown us the fact that interaction between deaf children and older deaf children and adults are more effective in helping the children acquire the sign.
However, there is still another question arise from this problem: how the deaf children acquire those kinds of languages. It will be focused on the quantity of the kinds of language used by them.
In the research of Martha Gonter Gaustad, the participants of the research are twins with one deaf and one hearing. She tries to analyze how they duffer in acquiring verbal and non verbal language. on her research, Gaustad argued that there are general differences both in the amount of communication provided to each twin and the kinds of input directed to the deaf and hearing twins.
Gaustad (in Strong 1990, p.236) focused on the examination of communication mode included both receptive and expressive aspects with regard to each twin. The communication will be classified into four types: (1) gestures (GES): non verbal, which included headshakes and attention-getting devices; (2) voice-only (VO): words or interpretable approximations; (3) sign-only (SO): signs or interpretable approximations, pointing, and so on; (4) combined vocal and manual (VM): speech (approximation) accompanying sign (approximation).
However, to answer the research question number one, I only use some parts of her research. In here I only focus on how the deaf children acquire the language—verbal and non-verbal—to finally find the quantity of types of language used by them.
Below are the tables showing the percentage of receptive and expressive communication to each twin by modality and interlocutors, at three age periods:
TABLE I. PERECENTAGE OF RECEPTIVE COMMUNICATION TO DEAF CHILD BY MODALITY AND INTERLOCUTOR, AT THREE AGE PERIODS
Gesture Sign only Combined Voice only
(to) deaf child
16-18 months (N=274)
Mother 15 56 29 0
Father 6 34 57 3
Hearing adults (researches) 1 3 87 9
% total 7 31 58 4
19-21 months (N=177)
Mother 0 100 0 0
Father 0 58 42 0
Hearing adults (researches) 1 1 89 9
% total 0 53 44 3
22-24 months (N=202)
Mother 3 52 45 0
Father 9 77 9 5
Hearing adults (researches) 3 17 67 13
% total 5 49 40 6
Means (%) (N=653)
Mother 6 69 25 0
Father 5 56 36 3
Hearing adults (researches) 2 7 81 10
% total 4 44 48 4
TABLE I. PERECENTAGE OF RXPRESSIVE COMMUNICATION TO DEAF CHILD BY MODALITY AND INTERLOCUTOR, AT THREE AGE PERIODS
Gesture Sign only Combined Voice only
(from) deaf child
16-18 months (N=115)
Mother 7 93 0 0
Father 10 90 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 27 73 0 0
% total 15 85 0 0
19-21 months (N=131)
Mother 25 75 0 0
Father 12 88 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 13 85 2 0
% total 17 82 1 0
22-24 months (N=117)
Mother 12 88 0 0
Father 28 72 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 18 81 1 0
% total 19 81 0 0
Means (%) (N=363)
Mother 15 85 0 0
Father 17 83 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 19 80 1 0
% total 17 83 0 0
From the data above, we can see that the total percentage of sign-only and combined language used by mother ad father when talking to the deaf child is almost the same. The hearing adults, in this case the researchers; mostly use the combined language, and sometimes the voice-only. They almost never use the sign-only. In the first table we can see that the deaf parents hardly ever use the voice-only language.
From the second table, we can see that the deaf child tend to use sign-only when speaking to mother and father. He also uses sign-only when speaking to the researchers. Sometimes, he uses gestures and can be said “never” use the voice-only and combined language.
Simply we can say that in the communication among deaf persons, deaf children tend to use sign-only. The gestures are preferred rather than the voice-only and combined language. Meanwhile, deaf adults sometimes also use combined language when speaking to deaf children.
In the communication with hearing adults, in most cases the deaf children use sign only when speaking to them. In other side, the hearing adults tend to use combined language when speaking to the deaf children.
Sign and Spoken Language Comparison (Kyle and Woll, 1985)
Spoken Sign
Instrument Air, larynx, tongue, etc Hands, body, etc.
Production Articulated speech Articulated signing
Phonemes of a language Cheremes of language
Reception Ears Eyes
Units Morphemes, words,etc. Morphemes, sign, stc.
Combination Grammar of a given spoken language Grammar of a given sign language
Universal features Only certain types of structure occur Only certain types of structures occur
Each spoken language uses a subset of their structures Each sign language uses a subset of these structures
Features also occur in sign language Features also occur in spoken language
CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis about the grammar of sign language used by deaf people, it is found that their grammar is not the same as the hearing. They have their own grammar. If we compare between deaf and hearing people grammar, it is for sure that deaf people or children’ grammar is grammatically incorrect at some stages. They do not use inflections, auxiliary verbs, etc. However their way of spelling is often accurate because they also learn about finger-spellings. That is why they are said to be slow in developing reading skills because they encounter a weak basis of spoken language.
As the answer for the research question number two, we try to conclude, and our conclusions are mentioned below:
1. Deaf children tend to use sign-only when speaking to hearing adults and deaf adults.
2. Deaf adults tend to use sign-only and combined language when speaking to deaf children.
3. Hearing adults tend to use the combination of verbal and non verbal language.
The differences are possibly caused by some factors and causing another impacts. However, those are not examined here since we only focus on the quantity of types of language acquire by the deaf children accompanied by the language used by people surrounding them.
REFFERENCES
Deuchar, M. 1983. Is British language an SVO Language ? In Kyle and Woll (1983).
Fischer, S. D. 1975. Influences in on Word Order Change in American Language. In C. N. Li, (ed.) Word Order and Word Order Change. Austin: University of Rexas Press.
Fodor, Jerry A., et al. 1974. The Psychology of Language: An introduction to Psycholinguistis and Generative Grammar. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.
Gaustad, Martha G. Communication in Twins of Deaf Parents in Fodor J. A et al. (1974)
Kail, Roert V. 2007. Children and Their Development. Fourth Edition. NY: Prentice Hall Inc.
Kyle, J. G. 1981. Reading Development in Deaf Children. Journal of Research in Reading, 3: 86-87.
Kyle, J. G. and Woll, B. 1985. Sign language: the Study of Deaf People and Their Language. NY: Cambridge University Press.
Meadow, K. P. 1980. Deafness and Child Development. London: E. Arnold.
Strong, Michael (ed). 1990. Language Learning and Deafness. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
IN ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
This paper is made as the requirement of final assignment of Psycholinguistics
By:
Eva Nur Mazidah 120710209
Rita Puspitaningrum 120710246
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY
2010
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEAF CHILDREN
IN ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION
Around the world, there are found thousands people having hearing loss—deaf—either from birth or injury, accident, etc. When it is from birth, there are some possibilities e.g. meningitis or an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (Kail, 2007). Human conversation typically takes place within a frequency range of 200 to 800 Hz (around 60 decibels). Deaf people have limitation in hearing the loudness of the signal. Several symptoms can be detected for instances baby never responds to sudden loud sounds, never turns its head to react sound in age of 4 or 5 months, does not respond when its name is called at age of 8 or 9 months, does not imitate speech sound and simple words at the age of 12 months. It is also possible that those children born from hearing couple, hearing and deaf couple or deaf couple. It might not be too serious problem if they are born I deaf family because they will acquire the same langrage. It will be very difficult in other side when they are born around normal people because they will be forced to acquire what they are not able—spoken language.
In fact, hearing people find difficulties to communicate with deaf people. One of the ways to communicate with them is through sign language. Kyle and Woll (1985) emphasizes it is neither a new language nor a new system developed by haring people; rather it is naturally occurring form of communication among deaf people. Linguists have come to analyze it as a true natural language. It shares features grammatical processes with other spoken language.
Language develops time after time not only in spoken language but also in sign language. They are for instance Dalgano’s alphabet, Digiti Lingua—old form 18th and 19th century and modern form—for finger spellings--, American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign Language (BSL).
When hearing children are exposed to learn the spoken language of their parents and of society, the deaf children, in another side, are also expected to achieve the same goal. Education for deaf children begins at the age of 3 years or earlier—family interaction (Kyle and Woll, 1985). During their first year parents will often be uncertainty towards their children’s deafness. Indeed the way their parents treat them may be different. Some methods used to treat their children resembled a speech mediation program e.g. hearing aid. Truly the deaf children are linguistically inept and need careful tutoring to learn language. Meadow (1972) found that deaf children (average age 14 months) had a language age of 28 months or less. It shows that there is a delay in deaf children’s degree of acquiring language—low. When they are exposed to lip reading or speech comprehension, there are no significant improvements as they grow older. . In their longitudinal study of milestone in word acquisition by deaf children aged from 15-18 months to 4 years, they found that the first word appearing at an average age of 16 months,10 words at 23 months, 50 words at 29 months and 100 words at 34 months(compared to hearing children 11, 12, 19 and 20 respectively (Kyle, 1981). To conclude these, the language development of deaf children is highly different either in quality and speed of development.
There are reviews on how deaf children develop socially and emotionally. From studies, deaf children are immature, disassociated or aloof, impulsive or lacking insight, lacking f self-confidence or initiative. Somehow, in other side, they have degree of maturity correlated with communicative competence (Kyle and Woll, 1985).
In this paper, some subtopics are discussed namely the grammar of the sign language—BSL and ASL, the language acquisition of deaf children, the acquisition of sign, verbal language, non-verbal language, and their combination.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What kind of language is used by deaf children or people? How is the morphology and syntax of their grammar--BSL?
2. How do deaf children acquire sign, verbal language, non-verbal language and their combination?
METHODOLOGY
This paper will be done with library study. Our focus is on the journals and researches about deafness, especially in children. We try to find from those data the sign used by the deaf children and how they acquire them. We also try to find comparison between hearing children and deaf children in the aspects of acquiring sign and language.
We then try to analyze the data we get from the books, journals and research to find the conclusion about what kind of language is used by deaf children or people, how the morphology and syntax of their grammar—BSL is, and how the deaf children acquire their language, especially for those under five years old. We hope that this library study can be used as a help for another research or data collection.
ANALYSIS
A. Sign Morphology and Syntax: the Grammar of British Sign Language
The morphology of BSL is very complex-relatively inflected-that specific information about case, number, aspect and tense is found. One of the specific information is number. It is either plural or singular marking of nouns. If English uses –s as the marker, BSL shows plurality by repeating a sign rather than by suffixing some elements. Next, it is about classifiers. Both ASL and BSL construct and be labeled as predicate classifier language e.g. a BSL verb stem meaning ‘to go under a bridge’ is presented by motion of the right hand under the left hand. Hand-shapes can function as number inserted into signs with temporal meaning classifiers (by means of indicating number in sign morphology). Move to case and role, in BSL, information is conveyed by in an entirely different way. In English conversation, speakers may point to locations indicating a person or object. BSL and other sign language somehow use combination of conventionalized, relative and real locations. For years, it was a fact that sign language had no tens system, unlike spoken language (present, past and future). Recently, it indicates that at least two ways can be used to indicate tense or time relationship in BSL and that may be like English for at least some verbs. It is done by adverbial modification e.g. TOMORROW, YESTERDAY I COOK, etc. (Kyle and Woll, 1985).
As with morphology, the analysis of BSL syntax here will look at how different types of sentence are formed. There are some possibilities in word order typology e.g. subject-verb-object, verb-subject-object, topic-comment, and s on. English has S-V-O typology, ASL uses S-V-O (Fischer, 1975) while BSL uses topic-comment (Deuchar, 1983). Look at the example below
VO CLEAN ALL (I cleaned everything) (T) C
OV TEN.p.PUT.IN (I put in lop) T C
SV FATHER FALL (Father fell) TC
If those three sentences are analyzed, there are three different sentences. Here Deuchar analyzes themas topic-comment because topics may have generally recordings of spontaneous singing. They believe that in the simultaneous use of both handy in topic-comment construction.
Apparently all languages have sentence types e.g. declarative and interrogative. These two types are usually treated by their word order. If spoken language intonation can influence whether the sentence is either declarative or interrogative, BSL uses facial expression as the role of intonation. To ask WH-question, they share a hand-shape and movement (five fingers extended, separated and wiggling) (Kyle and Woll, 1985). They include holding hands out, fingers pointing away, palm up, heel of hand higher than fingertips; pointing addressee; prolonging the duration of the last sign or facial expression, etc.
Kyle and Woll resume the early development studies, 0-2 years
.
These are the findings by Volterra (1983) about the
B. Deaf children’s acquisition of sign, verbal language, non-verbal language, and their combination
The factor helping deaf children in acquiring sign and competence according to Erting (1978, 1980) and Meadow (1980) is the interaction with older deaf children and adults. And it is proven that, according to Carol J. Earting’s research, the deaf children who have deaf parents or who interact with older deaf children or adults (e.g. teacher) can acquire sign and competence easily.
The research done by Erting has effectively shown us the fact that interaction between deaf children and older deaf children and adults are more effective in helping the children acquire the sign.
However, there is still another question arise from this problem: how the deaf children acquire those kinds of languages. It will be focused on the quantity of the kinds of language used by them.
In the research of Martha Gonter Gaustad, the participants of the research are twins with one deaf and one hearing. She tries to analyze how they duffer in acquiring verbal and non verbal language. on her research, Gaustad argued that there are general differences both in the amount of communication provided to each twin and the kinds of input directed to the deaf and hearing twins.
Gaustad (in Strong 1990, p.236) focused on the examination of communication mode included both receptive and expressive aspects with regard to each twin. The communication will be classified into four types: (1) gestures (GES): non verbal, which included headshakes and attention-getting devices; (2) voice-only (VO): words or interpretable approximations; (3) sign-only (SO): signs or interpretable approximations, pointing, and so on; (4) combined vocal and manual (VM): speech (approximation) accompanying sign (approximation).
However, to answer the research question number one, I only use some parts of her research. In here I only focus on how the deaf children acquire the language—verbal and non-verbal—to finally find the quantity of types of language used by them.
Below are the tables showing the percentage of receptive and expressive communication to each twin by modality and interlocutors, at three age periods:
TABLE I. PERECENTAGE OF RECEPTIVE COMMUNICATION TO DEAF CHILD BY MODALITY AND INTERLOCUTOR, AT THREE AGE PERIODS
Gesture Sign only Combined Voice only
(to) deaf child
16-18 months (N=274)
Mother 15 56 29 0
Father 6 34 57 3
Hearing adults (researches) 1 3 87 9
% total 7 31 58 4
19-21 months (N=177)
Mother 0 100 0 0
Father 0 58 42 0
Hearing adults (researches) 1 1 89 9
% total 0 53 44 3
22-24 months (N=202)
Mother 3 52 45 0
Father 9 77 9 5
Hearing adults (researches) 3 17 67 13
% total 5 49 40 6
Means (%) (N=653)
Mother 6 69 25 0
Father 5 56 36 3
Hearing adults (researches) 2 7 81 10
% total 4 44 48 4
TABLE I. PERECENTAGE OF RXPRESSIVE COMMUNICATION TO DEAF CHILD BY MODALITY AND INTERLOCUTOR, AT THREE AGE PERIODS
Gesture Sign only Combined Voice only
(from) deaf child
16-18 months (N=115)
Mother 7 93 0 0
Father 10 90 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 27 73 0 0
% total 15 85 0 0
19-21 months (N=131)
Mother 25 75 0 0
Father 12 88 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 13 85 2 0
% total 17 82 1 0
22-24 months (N=117)
Mother 12 88 0 0
Father 28 72 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 18 81 1 0
% total 19 81 0 0
Means (%) (N=363)
Mother 15 85 0 0
Father 17 83 0 0
Hearing adults (researches) 19 80 1 0
% total 17 83 0 0
From the data above, we can see that the total percentage of sign-only and combined language used by mother ad father when talking to the deaf child is almost the same. The hearing adults, in this case the researchers; mostly use the combined language, and sometimes the voice-only. They almost never use the sign-only. In the first table we can see that the deaf parents hardly ever use the voice-only language.
From the second table, we can see that the deaf child tend to use sign-only when speaking to mother and father. He also uses sign-only when speaking to the researchers. Sometimes, he uses gestures and can be said “never” use the voice-only and combined language.
Simply we can say that in the communication among deaf persons, deaf children tend to use sign-only. The gestures are preferred rather than the voice-only and combined language. Meanwhile, deaf adults sometimes also use combined language when speaking to deaf children.
In the communication with hearing adults, in most cases the deaf children use sign only when speaking to them. In other side, the hearing adults tend to use combined language when speaking to the deaf children.
Sign and Spoken Language Comparison (Kyle and Woll, 1985)
Spoken Sign
Instrument Air, larynx, tongue, etc Hands, body, etc.
Production Articulated speech Articulated signing
Phonemes of a language Cheremes of language
Reception Ears Eyes
Units Morphemes, words,etc. Morphemes, sign, stc.
Combination Grammar of a given spoken language Grammar of a given sign language
Universal features Only certain types of structure occur Only certain types of structures occur
Each spoken language uses a subset of their structures Each sign language uses a subset of these structures
Features also occur in sign language Features also occur in spoken language
CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis about the grammar of sign language used by deaf people, it is found that their grammar is not the same as the hearing. They have their own grammar. If we compare between deaf and hearing people grammar, it is for sure that deaf people or children’ grammar is grammatically incorrect at some stages. They do not use inflections, auxiliary verbs, etc. However their way of spelling is often accurate because they also learn about finger-spellings. That is why they are said to be slow in developing reading skills because they encounter a weak basis of spoken language.
As the answer for the research question number two, we try to conclude, and our conclusions are mentioned below:
1. Deaf children tend to use sign-only when speaking to hearing adults and deaf adults.
2. Deaf adults tend to use sign-only and combined language when speaking to deaf children.
3. Hearing adults tend to use the combination of verbal and non verbal language.
The differences are possibly caused by some factors and causing another impacts. However, those are not examined here since we only focus on the quantity of types of language acquire by the deaf children accompanied by the language used by people surrounding them.
REFFERENCES
Deuchar, M. 1983. Is British language an SVO Language ? In Kyle and Woll (1983).
Fischer, S. D. 1975. Influences in on Word Order Change in American Language. In C. N. Li, (ed.) Word Order and Word Order Change. Austin: University of Rexas Press.
Fodor, Jerry A., et al. 1974. The Psychology of Language: An introduction to Psycholinguistis and Generative Grammar. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.
Gaustad, Martha G. Communication in Twins of Deaf Parents in Fodor J. A et al. (1974)
Kail, Roert V. 2007. Children and Their Development. Fourth Edition. NY: Prentice Hall Inc.
Kyle, J. G. 1981. Reading Development in Deaf Children. Journal of Research in Reading, 3: 86-87.
Kyle, J. G. and Woll, B. 1985. Sign language: the Study of Deaf People and Their Language. NY: Cambridge University Press.
Meadow, K. P. 1980. Deafness and Child Development. London: E. Arnold.
Strong, Michael (ed). 1990. Language Learning and Deafness. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
BritstuD
EVA NUR MAZIDAH
120710209
BRITISH STUDIES
FINAL EXAMINATION
THE RULER OF THE
1. Introduction
Reading the history of
In monarch system, it is common to have powerful Crown. People used to believe that king obtained his rules from God. Nowadays, the paradigm has been changed that there is a national parliament representing ordinary people. It has been done since King John was force to sign Magna Carta imposing him to shave his authority with the barons. This model used was so-called Model Parliament proposed by King Edward in 1295 and considered as the first representative assembles. Here,
Another important history of politics is that since 1973, it has been one of member so-called the European Union. The EU has 27 members from most of
Some questions emerge toward the British political and parliamentary systems about people ruling the authority. In this paper there are some important notes explaining the British Parliamentary systems covering the Crown, the House of Lords, the House of Commons, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the Civil Service. Here there is the explanation about whom the greatest power lays in the
2. The Crown
The Crown functions as the symbol of unity of the nation and the head of the state. Since British uses the monarch system, its succession is hereditary automatically to the oldest male child—if there is the absence of males—or to the oldest female offspring of the monarch. The monarch in fact must be a Protestant. The succession in this case happens on the dead of the monarch by a formal coronation ceremony.
Besides that, the Crown is head of the executive and the judiciary, head of the Church of England and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Again, the Crown’s authority in parliament has been limited since 1689. So, the Crown is sovereign by will of Parliament. What now is done by the Crown are to summon, to suspend until the next session and dissolve parliament; to approve bills to be laws; to give royal assent to legislation passed by Parliament; to point government ministers, judges, officers of the armed forces, governors, diplomats and bishops of the Church; to confer honors; to remit sentences passed on convicted criminals; and to declare war or peace. Even though the Crown does not rule, since 1952 the Crown is visited regularly by the Prime Minister to receive Cabinet decisions and to be consulted as a fact that the monarch plays a more practical role.
3. The House of Lords
The
What the Lords do are making laws, holding the Government to account and investigate policy issue. They are in some cases experts in many fields and complement to the work of the Commons. In passing laws, this House debates the issue like another chamber does. Some bills debated in this House tend to be noncontroversial bills which deal with details not principle (but still need presenting in front of the House of Commons). This House follows the Salinbury Convention allowing them to be overruled. The last, it is believed that House of Lords reformation is an unfinished business. There is a debate that it should be an elected body though there is not agreement on the details yet. It seems to be the new task of the next authority.
4. The Commons
The Commons are publicly elected members. This is called the lower chamber of the parliament. This is a democratic part of the
Every seat in this House represents a geographical constituency. Currently, it has 651 popular members and it is a large legislative by international standard comparing to
Actually the two chambers have functions to check and balance the work of government parliament (House of Lords and Commons) and to examine and challenge the work of government using similar methods and scrutiny with various procedures.
5. The Prime Minister
In republics, the head of the government is the President while in the monarch it belongs to the Prime Minister. The
The governance is called Her Majesty’s Government. Her Majesty’s Government governs in the name of The Queen lying in
6. The Cabinet
There are three classes of ministers namely Secretary of State (the head of a department), Minister of State (a middle-ranking minister) and Under-Secretary of State (the most junior class of minister). There are about 100 ministers in the government but so-called The Cabinet is the Prime Minister and all Secretaries of State (20 main ministers. Ministers are taken from the government parties pointed by Prime Minister. They can be from the Commons or the Lords. A minister can use their freedom to make decisions but is some cases they still need the support of both Houses of Parliament
7. The Civil Service
The Civil Service deals with the conduct of the whole range of government activity. They hold day to day duties of public administration. The Civil Servants are servants of the Crown. They have no constitutional responsibility separate from the Government. Anything happens in the ministry does not affect the Civil Servants. They do not get involved in political work.
Civil Service Commissioners responsible for selecting civil servants are answerable to the Queen, and not to the Prime Minister. The ethical quality of the Civil Service has been well-known, higher than in business or industry. Those who want to be the Civil Servants have to have criteria such probity, care with evidence and respect for reason, a willingness to speak truth, a readiness to carry out ministerial instructions, equity and fairness in treatment of the public, a careful concern for the law, a constant concern for Parliament, its needs and procedures e.g. no lying and no misleading, a constant concern for democracy.
8. The Greatest Power in the
The diagram above is what is always believed by many people. But in my understanding, it is no longer so. There is transformation in the political hierarchy.
In the political hierarchy, the Queen does not have a big power to rule because it is in the hand of the hand of the Prime Minister. The Queen and The Prime Minister have the same position that the Queen is head of the state and the Prime Minister is head of government. Those parliament bodies (House of Lords and Commons) and the Cabinet work under the authority of the Prime Minister. The Civil Service is under the Queen’s will but does not intervene the political world. They only help the government without political will. All political conditions are the Prime Minister’s; the Queen only follows what the PM says because it is believed that what the PM says represents the government. Both the Queen and the Prime Minister basically have been restricted by regulation. The Queen may not intervene political condition and the Prime Minister can not be greedy in all matters of the state because in the respect of the Queen or the Crown.
9. Conclusion
From the explanation above, it is known that British indeed is monarch and democratic at the same time. The Crown here is only the symbol of unity of the state and all political condition is under the Prime Minister heading the Cabinet and parliament. The Civil Service also helps the Government in the matter of administration. There are many arguments whether the Queen owns the biggest authority or the Prime Minister does. It is then known that they are great in a certain respect. Still the Queen is head of the state but the God of government and state’s problem are in the hand of the Prime Minister.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Darlington, Roger. (2009). A Short Guide to the British Political System. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Britishpoliticalsystem.html
The British Parliament. (2001). Retrieved December 18, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A591383
The Two House System. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2009 from http://www.parliament.uk/
The United Kingdom Government. (n.d). Retrieved Decemeber 20, 2009 from http://www.britannia.com/gov/gov6.html
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)
