CULTURAL STUDIES IN QUESTIONS-CULTURAL STUDIES IN CHANGING TIMES: AN INTRODUCTION
Chronicles of a Transnationalizing Academic Enterprise
Cultural studies had developed time after time and some countries have their own history of cross-national and cross-disciplinary growth. It is believed that cultural studies can be traced from the humanities and social science literatures. In UK, it started from sociology of culture, class relationship and regional identities. In USA, cultural studies leaves and diminishes class strata-based on American values. These two countries raise different issue. In Latin America, cultural studies focuses on popular culture adaptation and transformation e.g. syncretistism, hybridization and mestizaje. In Australia, they use policy literature to examine politics, economics and Australia’s media and cultural industries, etc.
Disquiet within: Cultural Studies’ Debate with Itself
Though it is about cultural studies, it still can not be guaranteed that they have the same notion. There is discontenting and battle within the diaspora. It is argued that a cultural studies is based on sociological materialism, epistemological realism and methodological pragmatism, ethnography, postmodernism, constructivism, textualism, etc. These approaches are seen problematic for socio-economic determination. Other proposes epistemological reinvention to analyze cultural studies’ texts. But, this past decade cultural studies expansion had ended.
Disquiet without: the Watching Disciplines Pose Questions
In academia, cultural studies development was ignored so that it was a need to reinvent cultural studies concept. Cultural studies expansion effects on depoliticisation of origin goal of cultural studies. It was also impatience and ignorance in the self-enclosed and self-defined of cultural studies. Besides, in some cases, there was perplexity emerging indeterminable relationship of cultural people to archive material. Thus, cultural history has been ignored in relationship of cultural studies. In other side, this cultural studies rapid growth caused many critics since it turned off students’ interest in laboratory and its enrolments increased from 563,000 to 930,000 between 1988 and 1994. In UK, the critics have not differentiated to cultural studies and media sub-areas of cultural and media study. In USA, it has focused on curriculum change and cultural diversity and cultural studies enrolments. Thus, each country has its own focus.
The Critique Converge: Questions of Method, Motive and Meaning
Cultural activities used to be texts to be read rather than acts to be analyzed. Cultural studies focused in media artifacts and results of cultural practice rather than its execution. Now, we can see that it has been down to earth-cultural production occurs in the texts involving readers’ engagement. Next, it was cultural studies work theory e.g. language and jargon-description precision. Afterward, analysis form dependent on metaphor which is so affectionate to one’s practice. The case is what explanation of cultural studies and social process cultural studies can offer. Here, idealism and imprecision within the analysis by metaphor propose certain question about the status of cultural studies texts.
The Political and the Popular: Pleasure, Resistance and Power
During 1980, cultural studies questions about the scope and utility of modes of media and cultural analysis. There is “style” controlling economy and society as mediating agencies. The impacts were no place in the cultural studies theoretical universe.
There are contradictions of cultural studies power-to-the-people style of populism getting close the cultural choice and audience empowerment: pleasure becomes resistance to its source. The political critique is unavoidable force on innovation and strength coming with institutionalization. Besides, there is political critique of cultural studies ironic seen as intervention in political life. Cultural studies is related to culture on power especially popular culture. But there is a problem faced because cultural studies has often avoided aesthetic and economic analysis where the notion of value is derived from.
Beyond Cultural Studies: the Way forward, or More Than One Way forward?
The current stage of evolution of cultural studies is about identity which is slippery and multi-dimensional concept.
In this introduction, there are essays tracing the main routes and the ups and downs of cultural studies long journey and also sense of déjà vu to conceptual purview. There are so fruitful to energize research and theory in the early of twenty-first century era of new communication technologies and global-local information and entertainment exchange and to offer chances to provoke and produce analysis of cultural studies.
There are great literary works to read as there are many places to travel. Literary works are the travel places of written world because they give reportage, travelogues and impression. Besides, literary works are the time machine which can bring us to old life story. In 1929, there was a Great Depression attacking USA. Its effects were on many aspects of life. In this case, one of the poets who wrote about the Great Depression is Edwin Arlington Robinson.
One of Edwin Arlington Robinson’s (1869-1935) works is The House on The Hill. In analyzing this poem, I use objective analysis based on New Criticism. In my analysis, I divide my explanation into several parts, illustration and interpretation per stanza and general meaning of the text.
2. ANALYSIS
In this text, we find some symbols and allegory for instance House, Hill, broken walls. Etc. symbols may be roughly defined as something that means more that what it is and allegory is a narrative or description that has a second meaning beneath the surface one. These two things are explored in my analysis because I separate away the text and its author-the death of the author. This also results in one single best interpretation because there are no affective fallacy and intentional fallacy. I believe that the text will never change its meaning if we use the text itself to analyze.
First, the analysis is about the title, The House on The Hill. Defining the meaning of The, in The House, signifies a certain or definite thing. House means a building for human habitation; a place to store; Family; a residence forreligious community or students; a business; an organization; a place of business or entertainment. In this case, House is not just a house but it has underlying meaning. So, it shows a place for certain community or people. Hill means area of high land not as high as mountain; a little heap or mound as of earth; slope on a road. So, it shows that the place of the House is on high land but it is not on the mountain. Thus, The House on The Hill signifies a place for certain community in a high land.
By brainstorming these words, it must be very beautiful place in a green land. It shows peacefulness and prosperity of the people in the House.This House is made of struggle and togetherness and resulted in a settled condition-former.
In the first stanza, there are three lines. First line,”They are all gone away” shows the people have left the House. “Gone away” itself can mean death or lost. If it means “death”, it shows that the people go because they die so they no longer live in the House. If it means lost, it shows that their belongings-can be wealth- are gone and they suffer from the great loss so that they leave the House. “The House is shut and still” shows the condition of the House left by the people. “Shut” means becoming closed; stopping being opened for business and “still” means calm and quite; not developed; and quite. It is like no signal of existence. It seems like a business getting bankrupt and the people leave it. “There is nothing more to say” means that it is what happens there; there is no way to mend it and that is it.
The second stanza, there are also three lines. First line is “Trough broken wall and gray” showing the House condition. There are three things that need to be defined. “Broken” means damaged; no longer working correctly; not continuous; weakened by difficulties; or illness. “Walls” means structure; something that forms a barrier or prevents progress. “Broken walls” means the structure of the House is broken or no longer working correctly like it used to be. “Gray” means dull in color, cheerless, and dismal. Then, the first line means the House has been broken and since then, people leave the House and the House has no color become cheerless, no more hope. The next line is “The winds blow bleak and shrill”. “Bleak” means not hopeful and encouraging; cold and unpleasant and “shrill” means unpleasantly high and loud. This line mans that the condition-the atmosphere in the Hill is cold, so dead, lifeless and spiritless. The winds sound unfriendly and bring so much pain. “They are all gone away” means that it happens since people leave the House by something for many reasons they have.
The third stanza, there are three line as well. “Nor is There one today” means there is no one staying in the House. “To speak them good or ill” means to tell what s good and bad; what is supposed to do or not. “There is nothing more to say” means that there is nothing to comment then. That is it. “Nor” is put as the subject indicating that the emphasis is in negative statement, it is one of play in arranging sentence (negative in positive form.
The fourth stanza, it contains a question- rhetorical question as reminder or satire to the people (“they” and “we”). “Why is it then we stray/ Around the sunken sill?” asked why they have to get separate or deviate or be disunity when they face trouble (thesunken sill). It shows that hen they face a problem or “the sunken sill”, they get separate because of different opinion. “They are all gone away” means they leave the House because of such reason and in other side there s also questions toward their leaving.
The fifth stanza tells about fancy play and skill. “And our poor fancy play/ For them is wasted-skill” have some words to be analyzed. “Poor” means less than adequate; inferior; fairly unsatisfactory. “Fancy” means with technical skill and style; imagination; whim; idea; and fantasy. “Play” means the course of game, the act or an instant of punning gambling. “Skill” means ability to do well, well-explained. This sentence means their play for some others is waste-skill-not used well. And “There is nothing more to say” means what has been done can not be undone.
The sixth stanza tells what happens in the Houseof the Hill. “There is ruin and decay” tells what is there. “Ruin” means destruction; having no money; losing job. “Decay” means losing strength, power; deteriorating. It shows that they find leak or destruction; they have no money and lose their job and further they get bankrupt and lose their power. “There are all gone away” and “There is nothing more to say” mean that this is what happens in the House on the Hill; no one can stand with it; some of them would regret it but there is nothing to do.
There are points in each stanza and hey all retell he condition in the House in theHill. In the first stanza, it is about the House left by the people. It is then about the situation of the Hill where the House is located in the second stanza. Third stanza tells about the House which has no one to maintain or no one cares with. In the fourth stanza, it asks about the reason why they get separate when the trouble comes. Fancy play and wasted-skill and different perception is told in the fifth stanza. And the last shows the chaos happening in the House on the Hill as people are gone away.
In this poem, we find pronoun “we”,”our”, “they”, and “them”. These words imply that the poem is not about personal but it refers to people or group of people. The story behind the text shows the difficult problem of several people living in the House which makes them go away from the House.
The House as in my previous explanation can mean organization. When we relate this context with organization, the story would talk about different perception that usually makes some of them leave (“They”) and other (“we”) write the expression. There is no clarity whether it is fully left by people or there are others staying but no development in the House. What I see is that it is left by people and the House, which used to be meaningful and alive, becomes lifeless, undeveloped, cheerless, and nothing. I believe that this House used to be a pride and bring prosperity as illustrated and associated in the Hill-green and peace. Then, when it is left by, it becomes gray and no happiness. It seems like the tragedy happens when they face the problem that really threaten the organization-“the sunken sill”. His causes decay and ruin in the House on the Hill so that some of them want to keep survive and others just give up hope. Thus, people leave the House and they can not stop this-they have gone.
Other possibility scratched in the text is about economic condition based on the brainstorming. The House can also mean as company. People walk away from company when there is big problem coming-bankruptcy. When people leave the company, the company does not work properly or earn as many as it used to be. There is no development or hope in the company because people leave it. No one then cares with what happens in the company; no one tries to fix or mend the condition. “The sunken sill” itself is like economic devastation that completely destroy the economic and cause people o. this devastation indeed brings “ruin” and “decay” in the House.
Actually, the Hill in this case used to bring prosperity and then after people leave the House, the Hill becomes dead land-unproductive and undeveloped. It is also a sign that the Hill can be so productive when people work hard on it-that is why hill always be associated with green and height-and when t is not made use, what is found is bleak winds and shrillness-cold, lifeless, spiritless and so dead.
When I relate this poem with family condition, it also refers to the same point as two others. If it talk about the death, this may show the people gone away is because of death. If so, the House is left by people-parts of families. When the members pass away, no one takes care of the House and it becomes lifeless. Some others would feel great suffering and stressed. The happy family (the House) then disappears and becomes memory. There must be disappointment, sadness, regret and powerless but they can do nothing toward the fate.
Impressing points in The House On The Hill is the repetition of some sentences in the stanza. “They re all gone away” is repeated four times and “There is nothing more to say” is repeated four times as well. These two sentences ate, to my analysis, important notes in the text. These show the disappointment and powerlessness to what happens. It shows that what has been done can not be undone. The glory and stability in the House on the Hill is just memory and what we see in the House now is just broken pieces of former glory. It must be very difficult to rebuild the glory of people leave it and have no attention to continue the struggle and keep survive whatever he condition. This also signifies the climate change in the stable condition
In this poem, the tension is between former condition and present condition; its former glory and present decay. We can see that the tension structures the poem as a whole through the alternation of the past tine and present condition in the poem. Though the served text is about the present condition, it can be predicted the former condition-like ups and downs. Since the poem is written in present tense, this strongly shows the narrative present condition there. It lasting long affect of the disaster happens in the House. Thus, I might hypothesize that there involves the sadness, disappointment, regret, and powerless-nothing-to-doism. Some of the lines use nominal and passive forms to reinforce the emphasis on subject’s condition. Besides, in this poem, there are emphasizes on the punctuation, stop, question mark, and pauses. The first stanza has one punctuation and a stop and so does the third stanza. Fourth stanza contains a question mark and a pause. Fifth stanza has one punctuation and a stop. And the last stanza has a punctuation, a pause, and a stop. These changes show the change condition time after time- the bits. They are like ups and down in life. These writing symbols also support the story behind the text. It implies the development of the House on the Hill from nothing-no symbol- to other changes and ends in stop. When it is close by stop, it also ends story or text illustration about the House on the Hill.
After all, the poem, which has a-b-a rhyme save the sixth (a-b-a-a), has the theme of suffering the great loss of their belonging. Why I conclude this because all interpretation and illustration lead to this theme. What we find in the text s disappointment and nothing-to-doism aspect to what happens because they seem not to be able to trace its former glory since the people are all gone away.
3. CONCLUSION
After all, this poem refers to one general theme so-called the suffering of the great loss of their belonging. This theme is covered beautifully through words and deep meaning lied within the text. There are probably some different interpretations when this text is analyzed, but by using New Criticism theory, there is still one single best interpretation.
REFERENCES
Merriam-Webster’s Desk Dictionary. 1995. USA: Merriam-Webster Inc.
KARYA SASTRA AMERIKA: EKSPRESI DAN KRITIK TERHADAP DEPRESI HEBAT
Setiap sejarah merupakan sepenggalkisah yang tertinggal, terutama yang terekam pada karya sastra. Salah satu dari sekian banyak sejarah tersebut yakni sejarah Depresi Hebat yang menyerang ekonomi dan melabilkan kondisi politik dan sosial Amerika Serikat. Hal tersebut ternyata direfleksikan dalam karya sastra dalam bentuk fiksi. Meskipun dalam bentuk fiksi, atmosfer yang diadirkan dalam cerita merupakan mimetik tragedi nyata masa lampau.
Dalam tulisan ini akan dibahas sejarah dan seluk beluk Depresi Hebat, bentuk karya sastra abad 20an, dan ekspresi dan kritik karya sastra Amerika terhadap Depresi Hebat.
LATAR BELAKANG TERJADINYA DEPRESI HEBAT
Sebelum tahun 1920, Amerika menikmati kesejahteraan hidup dengan cepatnya perkembangan bisnis. Calvin Coolidge mengatakan bahwa bisnis orang Amerika adalah berbisnis. Hal tersebut menggambarkan setidaknya kondisi kebijakan pemerintah pada saat itu. Selama 1920an, Coolidge, Wakil Presiden Amerika Serikat, mendukung sekali kebijakan ekonomi konservatif. Dalam tahun-tahun kepemimpinannya, bisnis swasta mendapatkan banyak bantuan pinjaman, kontrak-kontrak menjanjikan, dan sebagainya. Namun di sisi lain, seperti pertanian, kebijakannyadengan partai Republik mendapatkan banyak sekali kecaman dari berbagai pihak karena petani hanya mandapat bagian kecil dari kesejahteraan tersebut, tidak seperti tahun 1900 sampai 1920. Antara tahun-tahun tersebut, mereka mendapatkan keuntungan yang berlipat ganda akibat dari Perang Dunia. Banyak sekali permintaan tak terduga untuk hasil pertanian. Namun, akhir 1920, permintaan menurun tajam dan semua harga pun merosot drastis. Sebab komoditas yang terlalu banyak dan pangsa pasar tidak ada, mereka mengalami kerugian yang sangat besar apalagi pasar dalam negeri juga tidak banyak. Jadi, sebelum Depresi Hebat, mereka sudah mendapatkan serangan Depresi lebih dulu.
Lain halnya dengan bisnis. Awal tahun 1920an belum menjadi awal serangan bagi dunia bisnis, terutama bisnis automotif. Bisnis automotif bisa dikatakan cukup penting pada saat itu meskipun pertanian sudah jatuh duluan. Antara tahun 1920 dan 1925, pengguna mobil meningkat tajam dari 9.000.000 je 20.000.000 dan mencapai 27.000.000 pada tahun 1930. Hal tersebut ternyata juga mempengaruhi faktor-faktor ekonomi yang lain seperti industri bahan bakar dan oli, dealer mobil, restoran-restoran tepi jalan, dan sebagainya. Selain itu juga, kebijakan yang dibuat pemerintah kebanyakan mengarah pada hal-hal tersebut seperti pembangunan jalan raya dan jalan tol. Meskipun keadaan ekonomi di beberapa sektor hancur, mereka tidak perduli.
Tahun 1929, orang-orang kaya berinvestasi besar-besaran pada pasar saham tanpa memperhatikan keadaan sekitar. Ketika Depresi Hebat melanda, mereka semua hancur. Hal ini bisa dikatakan sebagai kehancuran masal karena tidak hanya Amerika Serikat yang lumpuh tetapi juga Inggris, Jerman, dan Perancis.
Pada saat terjadi Depresi Hebat, banyak orang kehilangan harta benda, rumah, pekerjaan, dan lain-lain. Tiga dari empat orang di antara 12.000.000 kehilangan pekerjaan. Menurut Hoover, Presiden Amerika Serikat saat itu, apa yang terjadi di tersebut merupakan perputaran roda bisnis ynag natural. Karena mengadopsi system ekonomi Laisses Faire, pemerintah tidak bisa ikut campur dan keadaan tersebut akan kembali normal dengan sendirinya. Meskipun pemerintah memberikan bantuan, banyak orang yang tidak bisa menjalani keadaan tersebut. Perbaikan ekonomi pun cenderung untuk perusahaan-perusahaan besar sehingga timbul asumsi kalau kebijakan Partai Republik tersebut henya memihak orang-orang kaya. Saat itu, muncullah istilah “Hoovervilles” untuk menandai keadaan saat itu, kritik atas keadaan pahit yang mereka alami.
Ada beberapa penyebab Depresi Hebat. Pertama, thaun 1920an merupakan keadaan labil perekonomian dunia. Dolar Amerika secara tidak langsung membawa kearah defisit dan pemulihannya dari tahun 1925 ke 1930 membawa kesejahteraan bagi Amerika Serikat. Sayangnya, nilai tukar internasional yang baru berakibat fatal saat kredit dari Amerika Serikat turun. Kedua, depresi panjang yang sebelumnya menyerangAmerika Serikat semakin bertambah parah. Saat Depresi Hebat, hal tersebut ternyata juga berbuntut panjang pada ribuan bank daerah. Selain itu, sistem Laisses Faire tidak memperbolehkan campur tangan pemerintah sehingga pemerintah tidak bias mengontrol perekonomian negara.
Bukan hanya masalah ekonomi yang menjadi korban dari Depresi Hebat, melainkan juga keadaan sosial dan politik. Hal pertama yang diserang yakni rumah, keluarga. Ribuan keluarga banyak yang harus tinggal serumah dan apartemen. Pertengkaran ayah dan anak meningkat seiring sulitnya lapangan pekerjaan. Selain itu juga terjadi penurunan angka pernikahan dan kelahiran. Di sisi lain, pada dua tahun pertama Depresi Hebat, angka perceraian naik dari 163 ke 173 per 1000 pernikahan.
Selain rumah, pendidikan juga menjadi korban Depresi Hebat. Di beberapa negara bagian, siswa baru yang masuk menurun sampai 8,5 persen. Dana yang dikeluarkan pemerintah untuk sekolah dan kuliah turun dari 18 persen ke 84 persen. Gaji guru pun ikut turun apalagi ynag mengajar di swasta.
Banyak sekali problem yang dihadapi saat Depresi Hebat. Namun di sisi lain, Depresi Hebat membawa sebagian dari mereka pada kreativitas seperti di bidang karya sastra. Dalam paper ini akan dibahas tentang karya sastra abad 20an, ekspresi dan kritik terhadap Depresi Hebat dalam karya sastra Amerika.
KARYA SASTRA AMERIKA ABAD KE-20
Abad 20 merupakan perkembangan instabilitas sosial. Pengaruh intelektualitas dan material menjadi membingungkan dan juga timbul ketidakhadirannya pandangan hidup. Hal tersebut menjadi tanda, pada beberapa decade terakhir abad ke-19, penegasian terhadap Viktorianisme. Selain itu, juga ada penyesuaian antara ide lama dan ide baru. Penyebabnya mudah yakni selama Perang Dunia, orang-orang menjadi perduli akan dampak negatif perang terhadap keharmonisan dunia. Perekonomian telah menghancurkan kesejahteraan masyarakat seperti kehidupan sosial dan krisis financial tahun 1929 atau Depresi Hebat.
Kegagalan dalam upayanya menciptakan dunia yang lebih baik berujung pada rasa kekecewaan terutama pada generasi muda. Mereka melepaskan diri dari tradisi dan kepercayaan yang ada. Dampak yang lain yakni devaluasi dari personal individu. Keyakinan mereka telah sirna dan digantikan oleh ketakutan dan pesimisme.
Berdasar pada kebiasaan orang Amerika yang memiliki ketertarikan pada membaca dalam mengisi waktu luang, karya sastra mencadi bagian di dalamnya (Mauk et. al., 2005). Banyak sekali macam karya sastra seperti novel, cerita pendek, puisi, drama, dan lainnya yang menjadi konsumsi orang Amerika. Dalam paper ini akan dibahas hanya tentang novel dan puisi karena keterbatasan sumber informasi.
Berbicara tentang puisi, tahun 1915 merupakan masa peralihan dalam teknik penulisan puisi. Bias dibilang perubahan ini sebagai penanda dari kebebasan dan penolakan. Mereka menunjukkan kebebasan dari bentuk Puisi Lama yang dengan cara menolak semua tradisi dan aturan-aturan seperti meter, rima, stanza, dan lainnya. Sebagai hasilnya, puisi menjadi seperti prosa ritmikal. Puisi Baru disini menyarakan imej asli bukan diksi yang samar-samar atau klise-klise Viktorian. Puisi Baru berubah dari seruan emosi menjadi intelektualitas dengan alusi dan satire. Hal itu menggambarkan kesadaran sosial yang lebih besar dengan cara bermain imej dan symbol serta bersifat kosmopolitan.
Pada Oktober 1929, kondisi sosial dan ekonomi mengalami kehancuran masal. Namun hal tersebut tidak serta merta berpengaruh secara langsung terhadap karya sastra tahun itu. Beberapa tahun kemudian, hal tersebut menjadi diksi nyata. Para pujangga beralih pada masalah-masalah ekonomi dan sosial.
Puisi dipengaruhi oleh kelumpuhan umum, tidak mampu mengungkapkan kritik kecuali dengan negasi. Ada beberapa bukti jika para pujangga-pujangga muda terpengaruh secara dalam oleh Depresi tersebut. Mereka kemudian lebih cenderung mengutarakan keraguan, kebingungan, dan keputusasaan.
Gaya pun berubah lebih sesuai dengan aroma perubahan tempo, kecepatan yang tinggi, dan kekerasan. Manner pun bergantian dari kasar ke pahit. Iramanya lebih tajam ketimbang pedih. Attacknya tidak teratur, kegelisahan staccato. Tingkah personalnya penuh dengan kecurigaan. Mereka terpisah oleh kontradiksi klaim-klaim dari kekosongan rencana. Hasilnya adalah sebuah kontradiksi dari kebingungan dari bagian dalam dan luar. Banyak puisi-puisi tahun 1930anyang tidak hanya merekam Depresi Hebat tetapi juga menjadi usaha untuk manganalisanya. Sebagai tambahan, saat itu juga terjadi pertumbuhan pujangga idiomatic seperti William Carlos Williams, Hart Crane, Horace Gregory, Kenneth Fearing, Kenneth Patchen, dan Delmore Schwartz.
EKSPRESI DAN KRITIK DALAM KARYA SASTRA AMERIKA TERHADAP DEPRESI HEBAT
Dalam menulis karya sastra, tidak dapat terlepas dari adanya campur tangan unsur-unsurintrinsik dan ekstrinsik. Unsur intrinsik yakni semua elemen yang ada dalam teks seperti tema, diksi, gaya bahasa, dan lainnya. Sedangkan unsur ekstrinsik adalah elemen-elemen yang mempengaruhi pembentukan unsur-unsur intrinsik seperti latar belakang pengarang, kondisi politik, ekonomi, sosial, dan budaya, dan lainnya.
Dikatakan bahwa Depresi Hebat merupakan salah satu periode kekreativitasan orang Amerika (Fischer,2008). Mungkin hal ini banyak dipertanyakan karena secara nyata Depresi Hebat membawa kesengsaraan, kekerasan, kegagalan, dan lainnya. Namun di dunia kesusastraan, ini menjadi ladang baru untuk dieksplorasi-baik sebagai kritik atau ekspresi. Tema-tema umum yang biasanya ada di dalam karya sastra masa tersebut biasanya tentang keputusasaan, pesimisme, kemiskinan, korupsi, dan beberapa melodrama-genre baru saat itu- seperti opera sabun, cerita detektif, dan sebagainya.
Banyak sekali penulis yang menulis tentang Depresi Hebat baik dalam bentuk novel, poetry, lirik, cerita pendek, dan sebagainya. Banyak dari mereka mengusung berbagai reaksi terhadap zaman tersebut karena akibat yang disebabkan Depresi Hebat menghancurkanberagam aspek kehidupan dalam masyarakat.
Fiksi Amerika selama Depresi Hebat memberi tanda adanya arus berlawanan dari pikiran dan tantangan untuk demokrasi yang membingungkan orang Amerika (link, 1963). Adalah F. Scott Fitzgerald yang menyuarakan lewat tulisannya seperti Tender Is the Night, 1934. Selain itu ada Ernest Hemingway yang merusak tatanan standar tulisan sastranya sendiri dan meninggalkan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan dalam sejumlah karyanya seperti Death in the Afternoon, 1932, dan Winner Takes Nothing, 1933.
Kesengsaraan masal selama Depresi Hebat menyebabkan keputusasaan sementara harapan adanya penyelamatan, baik melalui reformasi kapitalisme atau menghancurkannya, melahirkan sebuah analisa karakteristik terhadap sistem Amerika dan perubahan politik, ekonomi, dan sosial. Kritik-kritik tersebut salah satunya merupakan bentuk kritik pedas terhadap kapitalisme Amerika-yakni berasal dari John Dos Passos. Dia menggunakan beragam teknik kesusastraan untuk merekonstruksi gambaran kehidupan masyarakat Amerika dari tahun 1900 sampai 1929 seperti dalam The Forty-Second Parallel, Nineteen-Nineteen, dan The Big Money. Dalam triloginya yang lain, dia melanjutkan kisah-kisah berlatar pada Depresi Hebat dan New Deal seperti Adventures of A Young Man, Number One, dan The Grand Design.
Kritik-kritik pedas yang lain tentang Depresi Hebat yakni berasal dari penulis proletarian-Marxist, komunis, dan para pengelana- yang menjadikan novel sebagai alat propaganda. Mereka melebihi-lebihkan kesalahan kapitalisme, mengagungkan “orang kecil”, dan memberi tanda kemenangan yang tidak diwariskan. Mereka, golongan para penyimpang seperti Dos Passos, Farrel, Steinbeck, dan penulis naturalis negro, Ricard Wright, menggunakan tema proletarian namun tidak menyerahkan begitu saja integritas artistik pada komisaris Union Square. Mereka menulis atas nama ekonomi dan sosial akan atas nama kelihaian mereka dalam dunia kesusartraan.
Berbicara tentang novel, salah satu novel yang bertemakan Depresi Hebat adalah karya-karya John Steinbeck. Dari keadaan Depresi Hebat tersebut, Steinbeck menulis tentang The Grapes of Wrath yang memuja kesederhanaan, kehidupan pedesaan dan Of Mice and Men yang merefleksikan apa yang terjadi pada Depresi Hebat baik ekonomi dan sosial.
Selain itu pula, juga ada karya-karya lain. The Disinherited dari Jack Conroy, 1933, sebuah kronologi daripara pekerja industri di era Depresi Hebat, yang menyuarakan kesedihan dan sinisme. A Light in August, 1932, dan Absalom! Absalom!, 1936, oleh William Faulkner juga muncul sebagai karya sastra Amerika. Ada pula Dashiel Hammet, dengan Red Harvest, Josephine Johnson dengan Now in November, John Steinbeck dengan In Dubious Battle, Dalton Trumbo dengan Johnny Got His Gun, Their Eyes Were Watching God oleh Zora Neal Huston, To Kill a Mocking Bird oleh Harper Lee, The Hungry Years oleh T. H. Watkins, dan sebagainya.
Untuk dunia puisi, ada beberapa puisi yang bertemakan tragedi Depresi Hebat seperti karya Edwin Arlington Robinson-The Dean of American Poetry. TheHouse on The Hill miliknya merefleksikan keadaan orang-orang dalam menghadapi banyak kehilangan karena serangan Depresi Hebat. Selain itu ada Merrill Moore dengan The Noise That Times Make, puisi lirik yang dinyanyikan oleh Jay Gorney dan E. Y. Harburg, Brother Can You Spare A dime? Yang bercerita tentang keadaan Hoovervilless, B. Braggs dengan I Dreamed I Saw Phill Ochs Last Night, Tears oleh Lizette Woodsworth Reese, dan juga Ain’t Gonna Be Treated This Way oleh Woody Guthery.
SIMPULAN
Dari sedikit penjelasan di atas, bisa dikatakan bahwa penderitaan dan kesengsaraan yang dihadapi pada masa Depresi Hebat tidak begitu saja lenyap dari ingatan. Keadaan tersebut direkam dengan bentuk lain melalui keindahan bahasa sastra. Penderitaan tersebut juga tidak berakhir pada kesakitan tetapi malah memunculkan berbagai macam kreativitas para pengarang dan pujangga untuk mengolahnya menjadi karya-karya hebat.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Bekker, A. SVD. 1975. Outlines of English and American Literature. Ende: SMAK Syuradikara Press.
AMERICAN LITERATURE: THE EXPRESSIONS AND CRITICS TOWARD THE GREAT DEPRESSION YEARS
EVA NUR MAZIDAH
120710209
English Department Faculty of HumanitiesAirlangaUniversitySurabaya
Abstract
Every period of history has produced unique story, in this case especially to American Literature. It is apparently what people can find in several American writers’ works. One of the histories is the Great Depression. In the Great Depression, there were economic, social and political changes. These elements, later on, influence the literature world itself. The influences can be seen from the way they represent the story in literature way. Though probably they made it into fiction version, the atmosphere of the fiction was the real tragedy of the years.
This journal article describes what the causes of the Great Depression were, how the Great Depression was, how far the Great Depression results in
literature. I believe that it is needed to be understood the real phenomena happened in the Great Depression. Besides, there is also explanation about literary works for children and literature as the critics and expressions toward the Great Depression.
The result of the discussion is that the history does affect the literature in the US and how literature can be bridge to Americans to know the history of the Great Depression in other forms.
Keywords: the Great Depression, American literature, novel, poetry, expression, critics, fiction, children’s books, creativity
INTRODUCTION
There are great literary works to read as there are many places to travel. Literary works are the travel books of written world because they give reportage, travelogues and impression. Besides, literary works are the time machine which can bring us to old life story. These are that is going to be explained in the journal about American literature toward the Great Depression.
Before 1920, United States gained such prosperous life with rapid economic growth-business. Calvin Coolidge said,” The main business of American people is the business.” It described the condition of government policy at that time. During 1920, Coolidge, vice president of US, did support conservative economic policy. In his years, private business accepted substantial force including loans, beneficial contracts, etc. but in the other side, e.g. farming, his policy with Republican Party gained so many critics because farmers only get small part of prosperity unlike in 1900 to 1920 when they gained their prosperity. At that time, the unexpected demand to agricultural products increased due to World War. This made them to produce more and they also gained much money. Unfortunately, in the late of 1920, war-time demands suddenly stopped and their agriculture product price sharply decreased. There were several factors but the main was the vanishing of abroad demands. They could not sell to other countries because of the restriction and high tax of import charge policy. Slow but sure, when the Great Depression came, they had already weakened. For business, in the early twentieth was not the beginning of their big strike because private business still conquered e.g. auto business.
It can be said that auto business was considered important though agriculture was about in depression. Between 1920 and 1925, the use of automobiles was from 9,000,000 to 20,000,000 and to 27,000,000 by 1930. It indicated that other supporting aspects were also influenced by auto business for instance oil industries, repairing garages, auto dealers, roadside restaurants and so forth. This was so significant that national government would sacrifice their policies and state building to highway working system to give best facilitation to society. In fact, economics in some sectors were in big trouble but people ignored it. This condition drew that they crazily expanded their business and forgot the main ideology core of their capitalism. Simply, they need mass consumption if they produce mass production. Mass consumption indeed needs distribution to make them stand still-this was what they forgot-no consumers.
Many of the riches spent and gambled to speculate stock market boom without regarding to company performance. When the tragedy in October 1929 came, they got bankrupt. They were destroyed. They suffered great loss. Not only USA, but also British, Germany and French fell together as well. It was like mass bankrupt. This is why the tragedy so-called the Great Depression.
In the Great Depression, people suffering from great depression became poor. They lost their belongings. In 1932, three of four in more than 12,000,000 people were unemployed. People lost their homes. To Hoover, what happened in the Great Depression was part of normal business cycle and by international factors and not USA ones. Since America adopted Laisses Faire system, they only depended on the business world itself. To him, prosperity was just around the corner that the best thing for the country to do would be waiting the crisis out (Mabry, 2003). Though there were aids given by government, many of them could not help with themselves. The reconstruction finance was aided much to the riches. This Republican policy was cursed by many people so they created an assumption that Republicans were interested in the rich. Then, in that era they created so-called “Hoovervilles” to signify their critics and great loss.
There were underlying causes of the depression. First, in 1920’s was instable world economic condition. American dollars indeed helped Western Europe to meet deficit and their recovery from 1925 to 1930 in turn brought prosperity to America. Unfortunately, the new international exchange system-Europe’s financial dependency upon USA- showed fatal when American credits decreased. Second, the long depression attacking agriculture brought American farmers to great loss during the decade. Its effects were tangible even influencing other sectors e.g. thousands of country banks. Next, there was clear that at that time they used Laisses Faire system so government did not involve in economic activities. There were not tied by government’s hands in controlling money supply. In conclusion, those factors of maladjustment caused the Great Depression.
Afterward, the stages of depression attacked US; the impacts were all aspects of life. The most astonishing was social impact. At first, the breakable one was the homes. Here, male workers were unemployed. It was stated that three of four employers were unemployed. Besides, women working as servants had to live at home by gardening, canning, making soaps and so on.
Somehow, Americans acted ironically under the hopeless hope. Though, they stopped buying new automobiles, they still could not leave their old ones and gasoline consumption slightly increased from 1929 through 1933. They lessened the purchase of jewelry but they could not give up buying silk, hosiery or radio-it was so-called the Golden Age of Radio. They also loved going to soap operas. They also fell into cigarette addiction that cigarette demands raised steadily during the depression years as if it could release their misery. Indeed, what had happened was ironically with what then happened.
Besides, other social effect emerged by the Great Depression was its on family relationship, marriage and birth rates ten thousands of families were forced to double up in homes and apartment. The tensions between father and sons increased since they also could not find work. There was also decreasing numbers of marriage from 1,233,000 in 1929 to 982,000 in 1932. Afterward, the birth rates also decreased from 21.3 per thousand in 1930 in 18.4 in 1933. Furthermore, as the tensions grew up and heated in the first two years of the depression, the number of divorces per 1,000 increased from 163 in 1929 to 173 in 1931. But after 1932, however, there was a sharp decline in the number of divorces to 163 per 1,000 marriages in 1932.
Furthermore, education was part of victims. In some states, the enrolments in higher institution declined from 8.5 per cent between 1931 and 1934. School and colleges budgets decreased from 18 per cent to 84 per cent. From 1930 to 1934, state and college universities declined 31 per cent in income from state appropriations and 19 per cent in income from endowments owned by private institutions.
Problematic cases we find in discussing the Great Depression of USA in other ways bring great creativity developments in art-literature and music. In this journal, I am discussing about the background of American literature in the twentieth century, the Great Depression and great creativity, the Great Depression and children’s books, and expressionism and critics toward the Great Depression years.
BACKGROUND OF LITERARY WORKS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The twentieth century was the time of increasing instability of society. Intellectual and material influences bewildered and there was an absence of generally accepted view of life. It was also a sign, in the last few decades of nineteenth century, of negation toward Victorianism set in. There was also the overlapping of old and new ideas. The cause was simple that during the international war period, people became aware of war effort having upset the balance of world’s community. Economics crisis broke down general prosperity e.g. social life and financial crisis of 1929 or the Great Depression.
The failure to realize a better world resulted in a spirit of disillusionment, especially among the young generation. They broke away the accepted traditions and beliefs. Other effect was the devaluation of the individual personality. Their faith had gone and was replaced by fear and pessimism. It was shown that there was spiritual climate- one of individual uncertainty, fear, and anxiety - and on the other, one of social commitment.
As we all know that literature world has several kinds of works for instance novel, short story, poetry, drama, etc. In this journal, I am using some of the works to be discussed concerning on the Great Depression. Basically, all those works have also been influenced by the era. Because of limited sources and data I have got, I am going to focus on poetry and novel.
Talking about poetry, at the very first I want to explain about its history. Around 1915, it was brought about a complete change in the ways of poetical technique. I can say that this change was sign of freedom and rejection. They showed the great freedom of form by rejecting all traditional limitation of meter, rhyme, stanza, etc. Sometimes as a result, poetry resembles rhythmical prose. New poetry also conveyed original image not vague diction and clichés of Victorians. It changed from an appeal to emotion to an appeal to the intellect by allusions or satire. It reflected greater social consciousness and played with images and symbols and was cosmopolitanism.
In October 1929, social as well as economic apparently were crashed but the blow did not immediately register on the literature-poetry- at that time. A few years later, it became evident of the effect. The poets turned to a consideration for economic and social problems. Not more than three or for new poets of any interests emerged between 1930 and 1940.
Poetry was influenced by the general paralysis, unable to express the crisis save by negation. Yet, however the condition, they could not remain inarticulate for long. There were also signs that the younger poets deeply affected by the crashed. Then they attended to express doubtfully, bewilderedly, and even desperately.
The style shifted to be compatible with the change tempo, increasing speed and violence. The manner alternated from brusque to bitter. The tone was pungent rather than poignant. The attack was spasmodic, nervously staccato. The “personal attitude” was suspicious. They were separated by the contradictory claims of a plan less do-nothingism. The result was a contradiction of inner confusion and outer form. Many of the poetry of the early thirties are not only record of nightmare but also an attempt to analyze it as well.
There was also the growing of idiomatic poets e.g. William Carlos Williams, Hart Crane and Horace Gregory. Besides, there were Kenneth Fearing, Kenneth Patchen and Delmore Schwartz.
GREAT DEPRESSION, GREAT CREATIVITY
Fischer wrote that the Great Depression was one of the great creative periods of Americans. It mist be very questionable since the Great Depression apparently brought adversity, misery and hardship; it was all about the rage (Fischer, 2008). Common themes found in such works, for instance novel and poetry, are despair, pessimism, poverty, corruption, strife between labor and management, etc. the most impressive was the delivering of new genres-melodrama e.g. soap operas, heroic detective story, and others. Indeed, the literature of the Great Depression reflects a critical period in US history, which had a lasting impact by bringing them social security, roads, post offices and bank regulations.
Other creativity was not only about New Deal programs. Most people should also notice on the striking images taken by photographers working for Farm Security Administration. If people paid more attention to other aspects, they would find several programs, such the Federal Writers and Theatre Projects that were equally critical to the culture of that era. Under such programs, writers and movie directors as well were inspired to create creative works. Thus, literature works toward the Great Depression stimulate and signify the existence of the Great Depression as mimetic of the real world for instance The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture-co-winner in 1990 of the American Studies Association’s John Hope Franklin Publication Prize- and After the Machine: Visual Arts and the Erasing of Cultural Boundaries.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND CHILDREN’S BOOK
When I browsed in the internet, I find an interesting fact that in the Great Depression was also written in children’s books-children version. Even though books are fiction, the actual events, settings, are not fiction. These events are to help understanding of the horrors of the Great Depression. It is believed that reading historical fiction is a perfect way to help students in understanding important periods of American history. These are several good historical books about the Great Depression. One of them is Out of the Dust by Karren Hesse. It tells about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl-one of the worst disasters in the US and the devastation of the Great Depression. Next, it is Ivy Larkin by Mary Stolz. It tells about a student’s struggle in taking a scholarship in a prestigious school, coping with her hopelessness, and worrying about his father’s lost job because of the Great Depression. Other book explaining aspects of the Great Depression is Nowhere to Call Home by Cynthia Defelice. The story is set when Hoovervilles is omnipresent because poverty is rampant. It tells about France’s life-his father loses his factory and gets bankrupt; Frances becomes Frankie Blue and sees horrible poverty of the Great Depression. In addition, Jeanette Ingold with Hitch tells about Moss Trawnley who joins the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression after he loses his job.
The most astonishing were these books given from two to nine grades of schools and they made it by adapting to children version.They use this way to show the talk of hard times of the Great Depression history through in literature. There are some of the Great Depression stories and history in the children’s pictured books for example The Gardener written by Sarah Stewart, What You Know First written by Patricia MacLachlan, Dust for Dinner by Ann Turner, The Dust Bowl written by David Booth, David A. Adler’s The Babe and I. These books were made and atmospheredby the situation and problems and took setting in the Great Depression years.
In addition, they also use novels in their curriculums from four to nine grades. The novels are for instance Arly’s Run by Robert Newton Peck; Mildred Taylor’s Roll of Thunder: Hear My Cry; Nothing to fear by Jack French Koller; Christopher Paul Curtis’ Bud, Not Buddy; Year Down Yonder: the sequel to Long Way from Chicago by Richard Peck.
In conclusion, these books are written in the expression of the Great Depression tragedy. These are formulated to be given to school year children in order to make them know the history of their US. Whatever the style they have used in writing these books, the important thing is they are able to make these works as the mimetic of the real life.
EXPRESSIONS AND CRITICS TOWARD THE GREAT DEPRESSION IN AMERICAN LITERATURE
By the 1930s though money was scarce because of the depression, in my previous statement, the need of radio and high interest in theatres showed that people did what they could to relieve their stress. Besides those ways, there was book to relieve it.
There were many writers writing about the Great Depression years whether in novel, poetry and lyrics, short story, drama and so forth. Most of them conveyed various the reactions toward the era because the impacts were not only about economic condition and political condition but also social life as well.
NOVEL
American fictional writing, during the years of the Great Depression, foreshadowed the violent crosscurrent of thought and challenges to democracy that confused the American mind (Link,1963). It was F. Scott Fitzgerald who conveyed his poignant writing, for instance Tender is the Night, 1934. Besides that, Ernest Hemingway wrote by violating his own literary standards and renouncing human values in his series of books- Death in the Afternoon, 1932, and Winner Takes Nothing, 1933.
The mass of human suffering during the Great Depression years caused despair while the hope of salvation either through reform of capitalism or destruction bore a characteristic analysis of the American system and political climate. The critics-one of them was the bitterest critic of American capitalism among fictional writers- were from John Dos Passos. He used various literary techniques to reconstruct the overview of American life from 1900 to 1929 e.g. The Forty-Second Parrarel, Nineteen-Nineteen, and The Big Money. In other trilogy, he continued the story trough the depression and the New Deal e.g. Adventures of A Young Man, Number One, and the Grand Design.
Other bitterest critics of the depression decade were from proletarian writers-Marxist. Communist and fellow-travelers who made use of novels as tools of propaganda to provoke the conversion of the middle classes to revolutionary ideals. They exaggerated the sins of capitalism and glorified the “little people” and gave the coming triumph sign the disinherited. They-“deviants” e.g. Dos Passos, Farrell, Steinbeck, and the Negro naturalist writer, Richard Wright- used proletarian themes but nor give up their artistic integrity to the commissaries of Union Square. They all wrote in the name of economic and social criticism not for the sake of literary prowess.
Talking about novel, one of novel concerning to the Great Depression was John Steinbeck’s works. The 1930’s were a decade of a great change economically, socially and politically. From this condition, John Steinbeck rose and wrote The Grapes of Wrath whichglorified a simple, rural life, and Of Mice and Men which reflect what went on the Great Depression years economically, socially and politically.
Besides those, there are others works. Jack Conroy’s The Disinherited, 1933, a chronicle of the average industrial workers’ life in the depression era, conveys the disillusionment and cynism. A light in August, 1932, and Absalom! Absalom!, 1936, by William Faulkner also emerged as important American literatures. There are Dashiell Hammet with Red Harvest, Josephine Johnson with Now n November, John Steinbeck’s In Dubious Battle, Dalton Trumbo with Johnny Got His Gun, Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neal Huston, To Kill a Mocking Bird by Harper Lee, and The Hungry Years by T. H. Watkins.
POETRY
There are also poetries for instance from Edwin Arlington Robinson- the Dean of American poetry- who also wrote about his feeling toward the Great Depression tragedy. His The House on The Hill reflects people condition in facing loss because of the country situation.
They are all gone away,
The house is shut and still,
There is nothing more to say.
Through broken walls and gray
The winds blow bleak and shrill:
They are all gone away.
Nor is there one today
To speak them good or ill:
There is nothing more to say.
Why is it then we stray
Around the sunken sill?
They are all gone away.
And our poor fancy-play
For them is wasted skill:
There is nothing more to say.
There is ruin and decay
In the House on the Hill
They are all gone away,
There is nothing more to say.
There is a poetry coming from Donald Justice by the titlePantoum Of The Great Depression that tells about the misery experienced by people in the Great Depression.
It was the ordinary pities and fears consumed us.
We gathered on porches; the moon rose; we were poor.
What audience would ever know our story?
Beyond our windows shone the actual world.
We gathered on porches; the moon rose; we were poor.
And time went by, drawn by slow horses.
Somewhere beyond our windows shone the actual world.
The Great Depression had entered our souls like fog.
And time went by, drawn by slow horses.
We did not ourselves know what the end was.
The Great Depression had entered our souls like fog.
We had our flaws, perhaps a few private virtues.
Others are Merrill Moore’s The Noise That Times Make and This Land is Your Land by Woody Guthrie, etc. Most of the poetries of the era talk about their expressions and critics toward the Great Depression.
Other form of poetry is lyrics. In 1930’s songs, it was found some lyrics that tell about the Great Depression story for example Jay Gorney and E. Y. Harburg’s Brother Can You Spare A dime?, B. Bragg’s I Dreamed I Saw Phill Ochs Last Night andWoody Guthrie’s Ain’t Gonna Be Treated This Way.
Brother Can You Spare A Dime
Jay Gorney/E.Y.Harburg
once I built a railroad, made it run made it race against time once I built a railroad, now it's done brother can you spare a dime? once I built a tower to the sun brick and rivet and lime once I built a tower, now it's done brother can you spare a dime?
once in khaki suits gee, we looked swell full of that yankee Doodle De Dum half a million boots went slogging through hell I was the kid with the drum say don't you remember, they called me Al It was Al all the time say don't you remember, I'm your pal! Buddy can you spare a dime?
once I built a railroad, made it run made it race against time once I built a railroad, now it's done brother can you spare a dime? once I built a tower to the sun brick and rivet and lime once I built a tower, now it's done brother can you spare a dime?
We Ain't Got No Money, Honey, But We Got Rain
by Charles Bukowski
call it the greenhouse effect or whatever but it just doesn't rain like it used to. I particularly remember the rains of the depression era. there wasn't any money but there was plenty of rain. it wouldn't rain for just a night or a day, it would RAIN for 7 days and 7 nights and in Los Angeles the storm drains weren't built to carry off taht much water and the rain came down THICK and MEAN and STEADY and you HEARD it banging against the roofs and into the ground waterfalls of it came down from roofs and there was HAIL big ROCKS OF ICE bombing exploding smashing into things and the rain just wouldn't STOP and all the roofs leaked- dishpans, cooking pots were placed all about; they dripped loudly and had to be emptied again and again. the rain came up over the street curbings, across the lawns, climbed up the steps and entered the houses. there were mops and bathroom towels, and the rain often came up through the toilets:bubbling, brown, crazy,whirling, and all the old cars stood in the streets, cars that had problems starting on a sunny day, and the jobless men stood looking out the windows at the old machines dying like living things out there. the jobless men, failures in a failing time were imprisoned in their houses with their wives and children and their pets.
These poetry lyrics can be said as the reaction toward Government’s state building. Before the Great Depression came, they built highways and railroad to support the structure of the state because at that time there was high demand of auto products. They only thought of their own interest while at the same time, economic in agriculture had been destroyed. And the poem from Bukowski tells about the condition when people are lack of money. At that time, people faced the great deficit.
CONCLUSION
From the explanation above, I can conclude that the bitterness of the Great Depression is not merely gone in a wink. Furthermore the bitterness also produces the great creativity in many aspects especially in literary works. Literary works themselves serve not only in heavy ways but also in children’s books and they become the source of studying the history. These things are unique because it can help the understanding and refreshing. In conclusion, whoever the writers either from the 1930s writers or not, their contributions in literary world are worth it to be appreciated because it is not only about writing per se.
Bekker, A. SVD. 1975. Outlines of English and American Literature. Ende: SMAK Syuradikara Press.
Bragg, B. (n. d). I Dreamed I Saw Phil Ochs Last Night. Retrieved June 27, 2009, fromhttp://users.bart.nl/~ljmeijer/oldham/lyrics/gezundheit.htm
Bukowski,Charles. (n. d). We Ain't Got No Money, Honey, But We Got Rain. Retrieved June 27, 2009, from http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/charles_bukowski/poems/13080.html
Gorney, Jay and E.Y.Harburg. (n. d). Brother Can You Spare A Dime?. Retrieved June 27, 2009, from http://users.bart.nl/~ljmeijer/oldham/lyrics/gezundheit.htm
Lost Generation. 2009. In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 01, 2009, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http//www.btitannica.com/EBchecked/topic/348402/Loss_Generation
